Development of Novel Immunogens for Vaccines to HIV-1

Introduction

The growing number of mortality rate is discovered through the contribution of health illnesses and/or diseases. One of the causes of the health illness is the HIV/Aids that affect both men and women. Experts already given the fact that the reasons in acquiring the disease is through blood transfusion, inheritance, and sexual activities. For the past years, there are victims suffering in the diseases because of the failures in discovering the specific vaccine or treatment.

Background and Problem Statement

The problem in HIV/Aids already infected the population on both developing and developed countries. In the continuous investigation of the appropriate vaccines for medications and treatment, the experts described the relation between HIV replication and immune responses. However, the relationship may seem critical in understanding the pathogenesis of HIV/Aids can push the development of an effective HIV/Aids vaccines. In the prevention of HIV diseases, the expert’s studies discovered that the role of humoral immune response of an individual. In addition, the there are evidences that neutralizing the antibodies can highly contribute to the protection. The antibodies that neutralized the HIV infections target the cells through binding the proteins (Schweighardt, et al., 2007). However, how far does the development on the anti-HIV vaccination can reach its success, and lessen the growth of population who has the HIV/Aids?

Research Aim and Objectives

The aim of this project is to select peptide epitopes that mimic neutralization-sensitive domains of HIV-1 envelope and may function as candidate HIV-1 vaccines. In order to satisfy this aim, there are three objectives that should be considered. First is to determine the similarities and differences of HIV-1 and HIV-2 that can contribute to the development of the novel immunogens. Second is to determine the methods and scientific processes applied in the investigation of the vaccines for HIV-1. Third is to describe the essential elements that can increase the development of the vaccine.

Literature Review

The availability of the vaccines against the infections and diseases are not independently taken as the treatment. The vaccines are for strengthening the human’s immune system and for the benefit of protection against the protection. This means that vaccination is not the real solution to fight deadly diseases. The common misconceptions of humans are relying too much on the medical intervention and temporary solution provided by the medical professionals. The experts advised that an individual should follow the health lifestyle to avoid the diseases. In the case of HIV/Aids, the vaccines can be possibly available in the county’s health departments (Stiegler et. al., 2001). From the various studies, the proposed vaccines are tested to the monkeys that have the same level of DNA as of humans and other essential antibodies. The variety of novel immunogens vaccinated in the selected monkeys show some significant improvement with their ability to control the infection with highly pathogenic Aids viruses. This observation delivers the idea that the rapidity of diseases progression can be deflected through the action of prolonging the disease-free survival. The neutralizing antibodies that protects the animals against the infection of Aids viruses might be awakened or revived through the vaccine strategies and for such resembles in their immune responses. Therefore, the studies concluded that the novel vaccine strategies slow the progression of the disease, if it does not successes the prevention of the infection (Letvin, 2002). It is accepted that the prophylactic vaccine against the HIV-1 requires the development of novel immunogens that are capable in protecting or neutralizing the antibody responses. Now, it is time for the development and continuous approach in a more standardized system for the creation and evaluation for the vaccines. The assessment should also include the transmission and sensitivity of the body against the infection to help improve the vaccine design (Schweighardt, et al., 2007).

Methodology

The suggested method in the study is the use of the secondary information. This is an advantage for the study to discover the researches done to fight the diseases and pursue the development of the vaccines. The materials that can used in the study are the medical journals, books, medical and investigative reports, case studies and others that are focus in the investigation of the HIV/Aids vaccines. The investigation from different settings is a good design in obtaining the information regarding the recent indication of HIV diseases and the observation of its reaction towards the current vaccination and antibodies. This will give the study the necessary idea in organizing the information regarding the continuous development of the novel immunognes for the HIV-1.

References:

Letvin, N.L., (2002) Perspective: Strategies for an HIV Vaccine, The Journal of Clinical Investigation 110(1)

Schweighardt, B., Liu, Y., Huang, W., Chappey, C., Lie, Y., Petropoulos, C., & Wrin, T., (2007) Development of an HIV-1 Reference Panel of Subtype B Envelope Clones Isolated From the Plasma of Recently Infected Individuals, Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 46(1): 1-11

Stiegler, G., Kunert, R., Purtscher, M., Wolbank, S., Voglauer, R., Steindl, F., & Katinger, H., (2001) A Potent Cross-Clade Neutralizing Human Monoclonal Antibody against a Novel Epitope on gp41 of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1, AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 17(18)

The Opium War and the Acts Related To It

Introduction

Illegal drugs and misuse of medicines are the most common trend in addiction to the society. The government and the other national security are aiming to provide the appropriate solution to eliminate the illicit drugs in the list by banning the suspicious products. As traced back in early years, opium poppies (Papaver somniferum) are the most popular kind of drug. Although most of the countries used this plant as part of their food and medicine, the cultivation of the poppies remains restricted. The issue of legality and production are still in the control of the United Nations Drug Control Program. In the participation of the other countries, anyone who is proven associated with the opium poppies are put into jail, while other government places restriction on it consumption. For over the years, the increase number of users in the world became an alarming situation and the blames centered on the failure of leadership, inadequate training of health care workers and insufficient power over the drug control effort. In this paper, we will address the brief history of opium war, the acts imposed dedicated for the opium poppies, and the effects on India.

War over the Opium Poppies

Around 3400 B.C. the opium poppy is cultivated in lower part of Mesopotamia. The Sumerians refer to it as Hul Gil, the 'joy plant.' The Sumerians would soon pass along the plant and its euphoric effects to the Assyrians. The art of opium poppy-culling would continue from the Assyrians to the Babylonians who in turn would pass their knowledge onto the Egyptians. In the continuous passing of knowledge regarding the cultivation of the poppies and trading, people are hypnotized by this small plant. Accordingly, in the year of 1839, Lin Tse-Hsu, imperial Chinese commissioner in charge of suppressing the opium traffic, orders all foreign traders to surrender their opium. In response, the British send expeditionary warships to the coast of China, whereas beginning The First Opium War. In 1841, The Chinese are defeated by the British in the First Opium War. Along with paying a large indemnity, Hong Kong is ceded to the British. In the latter year, The Treaty of Nanking between the Queen of Great Britain and the Emperor of China was made. Because of the discovery of new technique of administering morphine, injection with a syringe by Dr. Alexander Wood, he finds the effects of morphine on his patients instantaneous and three times more potent. Around 1852, the British arrive in lower Burma, importing large quantities of opium from India and selling it through a government-controlled opium monopoly. And in 1856, the British and French renew their hostilities against China in the Second Opium War. In the aftermath of the struggle, China is forced to pay another indemnity. The importation of opium is legalized and followed with the increase production of opium along the highlands of Southeast Asia.

Acts against the Poppies

In 1886, the Britain passes the Opium Act with hopes of reducing opium consumption. Under the new regulation, the selling of opium is restricted to registered Chinese opium smokers and Indian opium eaters while the Burmese are strictly prohibited from smoking opium. The success of the restriction and strict monopoly of opium trade reached the America (1890) and created the earliest-law enforcement legislation on narcotics, imposes a tax on opium and morphine. However, the continuous rise in the addiction pushed the US Congress to ban opium.

The U.S. Congress passes the Pure Food and Drug Act requiring contents labeling on patent medicines by pharmaceutical companies. As a result, the availability of opiates and opiate consumers significantly declines. Because of the immoral and evil effects of opium and after 150 years of failed attempts to rid the country of opium, the Chinese are finally successful in convincing the British to dismantle the India-China opium trade. The passage of Harrison Narcotics Act is established which aims to curb drug (especially cocaine but also heroin) abuse and addiction. It requires doctors, pharmacists and others who prescribed narcotics to register and pay a tax. Despite the ban in opium, there is a continuous selling of poppies because of the opening of the black market in the New York’s Chinatown.

India – Struggle in Opium

During World War II, opium trade routes are blocked and the flow of opium from India and Persia is cut off. Fearful of losing their opium monopoly, the French encourage Hmong farmers to expand their opium production. The law that controls over the cultivation of Opium and all matters relating to narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances are regulated by the "Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act and Rules" (NDPS Act & Rules), which provides –

1. punishment of up to 20 years Rigorous Imprisonment and fine of up to Rs.2 lakhs for indulging in trafficking of Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances

2. death sentence in case of repeat of this offence

3. forfeiture of property of smugglers and their relatives and ascendants

4. regulates the legitimate trade and commerce of NDPS for medicinal and scientific purposes The "Prevention of Illicit Trafficking in Narcotics Drugs and Psychotropic Substances" (PITNDPS) provides for detention of persons indulging in trafficking of narcotic drugs for 1 to 2 years by an Executive Order.

References:

Booth, M., (1996) Opium: A History, Simon & Schuster, Ltd., [Online] Available at: http://opioids.com/timeline/ [Accessed 19 July 2010]

Gunaah, M., (2003) Opium Trading in India: Almost a Century Old [Online] Available at: http://www.opioids.com/opium/opium-trading.html [Accessed 19 July 2010]

Scott, R.B., (2007) Opium Poppy Cultivation Central Helmand, Afghanistan: A Case Study in Bad Program Management [Online] Available at: http://easterncampaign.files.wordpress.com/2009/08/2007.pdf [Accessed 19 July 2010].

Improving Staff Performance through Training and Development: A case of Ridge Hospital

Introduction

The Health institutions are acquiring the individuals that can help them promote the quality of health care service. Because of the growing problems in healthcare, staffs are often the center of issues. People who need medical attention noticed the sudden increase in the costs of the services provided for them, but did not appreciate the services delivered because of lack of competencies among the staff.

Background and Problem Statement

The hospital performance is the concept of efficiency because of the range of services and their quality. The ways of its efficiency is also judged through the performances of the staff. This is an important feature of performance to guide and monitor hospital management (Walford & Grant, 1998). The challenge among the hospitals is how to sustain the ability of the staff in order to stand in all the health problems and issues. Therefore, how can a hospital improve the performance of its staffs in the means of training and development?

Research Aim and Objectives

The main aim of the study is to determine the effective strategies to improve the performance of the staff in a hospital setting. The paper will look on the case of Ridge Hospital in Ghana to address the issues involved. In order to manage all the related information well, there are three objectives that need to be satisfied. First is to recognize the actions of the management in improving the performance of the staffs. Second is to measure the ability and capacity of the staff in managing the changes and challenges involved due to the growing health demands. And third is to demonstrate the appropriate intervention in training and development of staff to accompany them in their performance.

Literature Review

The key aspect of improving hospital efficiency is through the increased autonomy and focus from the specification and management of resource inputs. This will determine the number of staff needed, the allocation, funding, provision of supplies, the kind of services delivered and how efficient the services are. Hospitals are expected to provide the standards in the performance and monitoring seems to be one of the effective ways to address the improvement in performance among the staffs (Walford & Grant, 1998). Due to the high cost of health care services, it may reflect in the variations of efficiency. For example, the hospital resources are insufficient to answer the demand of the patients and the facilities might not enough to deliver the expected outcome. The amount of services provided in Ridge Hospital was assessed through comparing it with the other hospitals. In the examination of staffing ratios, there is a great indication that staffing varies depending on the facilities, which will affect the result of productivity. Ridge Hospital showed the lowest workload, with 800 inpatient days per doctor and 120 in-patient days per nurse (Adams, Darko, & Accorsi, 2004). In staffing, it is important that the hospitals can produce the valuable personnel who can perform well according to the objectives and goals of the healthcare settings. Therefore, it is vital to determine the roles and responsibilities for each member of the response team, particularly within the hospital to identify the areas needed to be focused. Hospitals are advised to be aware of overload because it is obviously impossible to schedule the entire team and compelled them to work at the same time. Employees need to get away from the stress and refresh once in a while to be effective when they return to the job. If possible, the managers or supervisors can ask other support through the means of communication, such in case of an outbreak or mass accident. The medical team and other nurses can somehow help the emergency procedures (CDCP, 2003).

Methodology

The suggested method in the study is through the use of survey and interview. In the first phase of the method, the survey questionnaires are distributed in the selected participants who will represent the entire staff’s population. The questionnaires are in a form of Likert Scale where the researcher/s can demonstrate the impact of training and development among the participants. In the second phase of the method, which is the interview, the managers, hospital head, and/or senior staffs are the participants. Their insights will contribute in the analysis of the study on the kind of performance anticipated by the leaders as compared to the outcome of the training and development.

References:

Adams, I., Darko, D., & Accorsi, S., (2004) Improving Efficiency, Assessing Efficiency in Service Delivery, Bulletin of Health Information 1 (1) [Online] Available at: http://www.ghanahealthservice.org/includes/upload/publications/Assessing%20efficiency%20in%20service%20delivery.pdf [Accessed 13 July, 2010]

CDCP, (2003) Roundtable on Hospital Communications in a Mass Casualty Radiological Event, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [Online] Available at: http://www.bt.cdc.gov/radiation/pdf/hospitalroundtablereport.pdf [Accessed 13 July 2010].

Walford, V., & Grant, K., (1998) Health Sector Reform, Improving Hospital Efficiency [Online] Available at: http://www.dfidhealthrc.org/publications/Toolkits/HospEff.PDF [Accessed 13 July 2010]

Private Healthcare Industry in India and its Consumer Behavior

Introduction

One of the problems in the developing countries is the level of health care and its associated facilities. Because of the appearance of poverty that rotten the governmental policies and regulations, the health care quality and continuous promotion are duly affected. The officials are focused on too many things that the budget is declared insufficient for all their projects. However, because of the existence of the foreign investments, the developing countries are slowly making the progress and already in the path towards the continuous development and economic success, leaving no one behind.

Background and Problem Statement

Recently, the healthcare sector in India adopted the technological changes and innovation processes to make it possible for the IT powered services. With the support coming from their skillful and empowered healthcare providers, there is a significant change in the hospital services. The clinical functions that are under the computerization process and administration are considered one of the best applications of the globalization in the industry (Virk, Khan, and Kumar, 2006). Due to the continuous changes in healthcare sector such as the recognizable good healthcare services, it created a great impact in the level of consumer behavior. Because of the increasing cost of healthcare services, there are increasing numbers of people who cannot avail the promise of quality healthcare services. In the exploration of the past studies, the adoption of technologies that pushed the development also became the underpinning reason in the healthcare infrastructure and network.

Research Aim and Objectives

The main aim of the study centers in the investigation of consumer behavior particularly in the Private Healthcare Industry in India. In order to achieve the best results and organize it well, there are three important objectives that the study should supply. First is to determine the recent changes that created a great flow in healthcare services. Second is to recognize the various applications of healthcare services that increase its level of approach in the patients and thereby, compare the application of the healthcare services. And third is to discuss the existing governmental policies that bounds to control the continuous increase in healthcare services and products.

Literature Review

Many organizations like the Wockhardt Hospital Group and Apopllo Hospital Group implemented the IT in the healthcare industry. The introduction of the technological standards increases the operational budget of the respected hospitals (Virk, Khan, and Kumar, 2006). Apparently, it is reported than an average Indian consumer spending has increase from US$ 133.60 in 1992-93 to US$ 350.74 in 2002-03. And on the parcel of medical and healthcare spending has increased from 3.5 per cent to 8.5 per cent of total expenditure over the same period, a compound growth rate of 19.71 per cent (Chennai, 2005). The problem now centers on how will the Indian consumers maintain the level of spending if there is a continuous increase, makes it impossible to acquire the equitable, affordable and quality health care (SEARO, 2010). It became more challenging for the consumers since the economy is not fully recovered from the impact of global recession. The India, however, is considered to be at their utmost control over the industrialization taking the slow recovery path which allows the businesses to redirect the attention and strategizing. In the aspect of healthcare, the consumer behavior draws changes through the use of two decision processes, particularly in the adoption of goods. It centers in the rational problem-solving process, when the consumer becomes aware of the problem and then looks for a solution and; the rational innovation, when the consumer becomes aware of the innovation before he recognizes the problem (Campbell, 2006).

Methodology

The suggested method in the study is the utilization of survey and interview among the two of private hospitals in India – Wockhardt Hospital, which is a tertiary care hospital group, and Apollo Hospitals group, which is recognized as the leading private hospital group in the country. In the first phase of the study, the survey will be implemented on the facilities of both hospitals. The participants were likely the patients and out-patients. The questionnaires that will use as the main material of the survey will be in a form of Likert Scale that effectively measure the appeal of healthcare services among the consumers. In the second phase of the study is the use of interview, which the participants are the healthcare providers and managers of the hospital. The knowledge that can be gained through the interview centers on how the people will assess their performance in the healthcare industry. However, the study is looking forward to create a comparison between the private hospitals to draw the conclusion on what is the best hospital that can deliver the quality of healthcare and services.

References:

Campbell, M., (2006) “Consumer Behaviour and Contraceptive Decisions: Resolving a Decades-long Puzzle”, Journal of Family Planning and Reproductive Health Care, 32(4), Accessed 21 June 2010, from http://bixby.berkeley.edu/wp-content/uploads/2010/05/Consumer-behaviour-contraceptive-decisions-10.06.pdf

Chennai, M., (2005) “Product Market Study: Consumer Behavior in India”

SEARO, (2010) “Health Insurance in India: Current Scenario”, Social Health Insurance Regional Overview in South-East Asia, Accessed 21 June 2010, from http://www.searo.who.int/linkfiles/social_health_insurance_an2.pdf

Virk, P., Khan, S., & Kumar, V., (2006) “India HIT Case Study”, The National Bureau of Asian Research, Accessed 21 June 2010, from http://www.pacifichealthsummit.org/downloads/HITCaseStudies/Economy/IndiaHIT.pdf