Conflicts have many forms. It may be as simple as a disagreement, a sibling rivalry in the family, a bitter feud among friends, a clan jealousy, a gang fight, or a war between nations. All conflicts and wars had roots and reasons that are sometimes elusive to understand or even know. From ancient times to present, quarrels may start from simple or even trivial differences and disagreements. Often, these small disputes when ignored had even escalated to a clash between ethnic groups bent on wiping out each other entirely.
Current events itself displays a daily dose of conflict. Yet, no feud in the last century that had ever been publicized was as dormant and endemic than the disputes between the Arabs and the Israelis. Face it: acts of terrorism, border disputes, street shooting and killings in Jerusalem, these are but some of the headlines that crisscrossed not only the Israeli-Arab press but the worldwide news as well.
The conflict between Israel and the Arab nations is probably not only the oldest but also the longest in the history of mankind. No other account of wars had been recorded to have such stubborn and deep hatred between two human races, and most likely there never will be. Its uniqueness is unsurpassable not only because of the vast history it includes, but also of the opposing theologies that ironically traced its roots to only one source.
This essay is focused on the peace negotiations of Jordan and Israel in resolving their conflicts among each other. All entries provided herein are based from theoretical and conceptual frameworks granted that they are from various scholastic references and publications. Other information is based on the interpretations of the author.
Brief History of Jordan-Israel Conflict: Theoretical Natures
In this part of the essay, the discussion will focus on the general aspect of Arab-Israeli conflict. Primarily, the concept of this dispute among these nations is all interrelated. It is good to discuss it as a whole in order to provide a wider range of perspective.
The roots of the Arab-Israeli conflict stretch back to ancient history. The core of the issue lies in the fact that a small splinter of land, which is located west of the Jordan River and east of the Mediterranean Sea, is holy to three different religions. Some refer to this land as “Palestine” while others call it Israel. Regardless of its name, it is considered holy to Christians, Muslims and Jews and it plays a central role in the origin of these religions.[1]
In his book, van der Dennen (1995) cited several theories on the origin of war. Although he employed the sociological, anthropological and psychological perspective of the nature of conflicts, it thus gives some insight on the mechanisms on which man’s behavior can be understood.[2]
One of the cited theories is the competition theory, which states that organisms compete over scarce or limited resources.[3] In the animal kingdom, this is seen in the form of neutralism, mutual inhibition, competition, amensalism, parasitism, predation, commensalisms, proto-cooperation, and mutualism.[4] It can be noted that in this theory, competition does not necessarily result to violence; rather, in the case of multiple participating species, some groups tend to gravitate together against another competitor. In mankind, this is similar to the making of a coalition of armies or nations, like the Allied and Axis Forces in World War II. This is perhaps a possible explanation as to why the Arab nations in the Six Day War as well as the surrounding nations as narrated in the Old Testament usually united against Israel in battle.
Group selection as an evolutionary theory of war was described by van der Dennen as a trait of a grouped species to unanimously decide or choose something because of its benefit or advantage to the group. This ‘good-for-the-species’ thinking is stated simply in the words ‘for the greater good’.[5]
Van der Dennen also cited in the same book that throughout history, war had been accepted as a normal way of ending arguments, disagreements and conflict of interests between human groups.[i] He further states that war is a trinity composed of (1) primordial violence, hatred and enmity, (2) play of chance and probability, and (3) its element of subordination.[6]
Three basic paradigms of human war nature emerged in Europe as Scholastic thinkers merged the classical knowledge available: (1) Dualism (from the principles of Plato and Spinoza) stated that the elementary cause of war lies in the endless conflict between reason and passion; (2) the Augustinian view perceived that war is inevitable because of the Original Sin and Divine Revenge; and (3) the Thomist paradigm that pictured man basically as a rational and perfectible being, and not condemned by divine powers to make war perpetually.[7]
The 19th century anthropologists otherwise came to a different conclusion that the class struggles and wars were created because of the appearance of surplus production and socio-economic classes.[8]
These profound observations, however, tried to explain only on the human psychological and anthropological level the reasons of how conflicts were created. Yet, how does one explain a continuously evolving conflict between two races or nations? How does one justify the several generations of war and hatred between the Israelites and the Arabs?
The Vast Arena of Anti-Semitism
Anti-Semitism is often used to name the sociological phenomenon where an individual or a group of people expresses a discrimination against the Jews. It should be noted, however, that the term Semitic does not connote the Jews or Israelites alone, as will be discussed later, but a human race springing from Shem, Noah’s son. Thus, Semites does not mean per se the Jews or Israelites, but several races. It is necessary, therefore, to bear in mind that when the term anti-Semitism is mentioned in this research, it shall be defined as a racial dislike or hatred towards the Israelites or the Jewish race.
Contrary to some beliefs, the anti-Semitism, or the hatred towards the Jewish race, is not confined among Arabs and Muslims only. While it is true that with the United Nations and the advent of equal human rights some abuses and acts of violence had been prevented and contained, waves of anti-Jewish propaganda remained incessant, and even to the point where some members of the human rights advocates are indirectly responsible for anti-Semitic actions. Christians, who could trace its origins to the Jewish heritage, is not itself exempt to this. It is important, then, to compare some cases of anti-Semitism committed by non-Arabic groups to better understand the extent of the hatred of the Arab race to Israel.
Judaism and Christianity
It should be first noted that Jesus Christ said, “Do not think that I have come to abolish the Law or the Prophets; I have not come to abolish them but to fulfill them. I tell you the truth, until heaven and earth disappear, not the smallest letter, not the least stroke of a pen, will by any means disappear from the Law until everything is accomplished.”[9] The Church in the first century A.D. had good connections with its Jewish roots. In fact, all the writers of the New Testament were Jews, as all the apostles and early disciples. Other congregations scattered in the Roman Empire had strong Jewish origin, and they submitted to the guidance from the Jerusalem School of Thought.[10]
In 66 A.D. before the first Jewish revolt, Christianity was merely considered as a sect of Judaism. When the Temple in Jerusalem was destroyed by the Romans in 70 A.D., the Christians there had no choice but to hand over the position of Jerusalem as the center of Christianity. However, the Gentile Christians took this as a sign that God had forsaken Judaism, and that they were given the freedom to develop their own Christian theology separate from the influence of Jerusalem.[11]
Jews who survived the revolt assembled in Yavneh, and they decided that Christianity and Judaism be separated. The Christian Jews, however, did not associate themselves in the war against the Romans. In the Second Jewish Revolt, the Judeo-Christians again did not join because Bar Kochba was titled as the Messiah by Rabbi Akiva (they believed that submitting to him would be contrary to their Christian faith).[12]
Because of the growing rift between the Judaism and the Church, the theological and political powers were shifted from Jewish Christians leadership to the leadership of Gentile Christian leadership. Unfortunately, because of the increasing membership of non-Jews, Greek and Roman philosophies crept in and altered the interpretation of the Bible through a Greek way of thinking. One of the grudges of the early Church was that Judaism was allowed to be freely practiced by the Jews, but the Christians were severely persecuted. Moreover, when the Christians tried to appeal that Christianity was but a sect of Judaism, they were denied because Rome was unconvinced. This further bred bitterness in the early Church against the Jews.[13]
The Israeli-Arab Wars: Land Dispute on a Large Scale
During World War I, it became British policy to be committed to the establishment of Jews in Palestine. Among the most significant events that supported the reclamation of the Palestine by the Jews was the Balfour Declaration. Quoted from the letter, the British Cabinet affirmed that:
His Majesty’s Government view with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, and will use their best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object, it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of non-existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country.[14]
Authored on November 2, 1917 by Arthur James Balfour, foreign secretary to Lord Rothschild, it was perceived to be the first political recognition of a Great Power nation to Zionist aims.
After the World War I, the British ruled most of the Middle East. The region’s future was judged at the Paris Peace Conference, until finally the British and French agreed to divide the region in spheres of control and influence. They agreed then in the San Remo Conference in 1920 on the borders of the Palestine mandate and the nature of its surrounding territories. It was here that the British separated the area east of the Jordan River from western Palestine, and created the Emirate of Transjordan.[15]
Unsettling Dusts: Is Conflict Resolution Possible?
There had been many attempts for conflict management and resolution in the Israeli-Arab conflicts, and it had been reported according to a study by Bar-Siman-Tov (1994).[16]
Despite many claims that the present Israeli-Arab dispute over Palestine is merely political by nature, one has to wonder whether it is just a coincidence that many Bible prophesies predicted these conflicts beforehand long ago, or that several reports recorded the campaigns of hatred preached by Arab leaders, or the acts of violence committed against the Jews with no apparent connection to the land dispute but to their just being a Jew.
Who owns the land of Palestine? That is the question. Yet not because of political or national territorial rights, but in whose theological strength shall remain standing after the war. For despite the denials that it is entirely political in nature, the conflict goes beyond the parrying arguments of state policies and will be traced only to that driving principle which inspired these political aims. Will there be a hopeful peace negotiation between these two warring nations? Or as many say, shall it remain an endless conflict?
Israel: The Land of Promise
Israel has always bragged to the world that it is a "democracy surrounded by dictatorships" and that it offers full citizenship rights for the Arabs who are living among the Jews of Israel. The reality is starkly different from the propaganda. Israeli identity cards clearly state what your ethnicity is, just as the identity cards in South Africa once did. The reason why is exactly the same - it is to facilitate discrimination. For starters, the same principle of exclusion that was the very first bone of contention between Arabs and Jews at the start of the Zionist immigration more than a century ago, has not only not been abolished, but has actually been encoded into Israeli law. Public property in Israel, amounting to 93% of the land area under Israeli control, is reserved for the exclusive use of Jews - Arabs not welcome. That means visits to national parks, nature reserves, public lands, etc., which any Jew may visit freely are not freely accessible to the Arab community if Israel chooses to deny access. And the State of Israel is precluded, by its own laws, from leasing public land to the Arab citizens of Israel. This form of blatant discrimination would be not only illegal in the United States, but would be reprehensible to most Americans. Yet in Israel, it is the law of the land. [17]
Jordan: Rule of the Monarch
All throughout Jordan written and told history, it had three major and central goals: first, the ensuring of the survival of the Hashemite monarchy. Second, consolidating its territory; and third, playing the greatest possible role in the region.[18]
On its guarantee in maintaining the survival of the monarchy, it was difficult. The reason behind is the fact that royal family was originally from the Arabian Peninsula and not in Jordan. Furthermore, the significant numbers of Palestinians on the East Bank of the Jordan River after the wars of 1948 and 1967 is threatening to destabilize a Hashemite regime. Jordan was the only Arab nation that neutralized Palestinians after the creation of Israel in 1948. Ever since, majority of Jordanian “citizens” has been of Palestinian origin.
On combining Jordan territories, it was a complex matter. Jordan was carved out from an area surrounded by relatively strong states like Syria, Iraq, and Egypt. Hence, the pressure of the Zionist movement left both the government and the state on unstable ground especially during the 1977. This is the occasion when revisionist Likud party came to power in Israel with its changing battle cry “Jordan is Palestine.” Jordan then feared Israel more than it feared the Palestinians because of the convergence of interests between the two.[19]
Jordan’s plan to play a regional role in a broader perspective than its narrow borders and inadequate natural resources can be traced back to the early Mandate period.[20] In distinction to Jordan’s policy of discrimination toward Palestinians, Jordan's policy toward Israel has been one of appeasement. This is because of Israel's overwhelming strength, especially in comparison with that of the Palestinians. Following in the footsteps of King Abdullah, King Hussein reached a succession of understandings with Israel through Western mediators or in secret talks that became more frequent during the 1970s and 1980s.[21]
Spark of Light: Way to Peace Negotiations
After numerous attempts to end up the strife, remarkable developments in terms of peace arise. The early 1990s marked a watershed period in the history of the Arab-Israeli conflict.
“The Gulf Crisis redefined the balance of power in the Middle East, reshuffled inter-Arab relations and demonstrated once again the need to work toward a just and comprehensive regional peace. Moreover, several other factors converged during this time to produce a situation propitious for pursuing peace. The termination of the Cold War allowed the Arab-Israeli conflict to be treated as a regional problem. This, combined with the international realization that Arab-Israeli peace is necessary for regional stability, provided the spark to re-ignite a hitherto dormant peace process.”[22]
But even before the efforts of creating peace all throughout the Middle East nations, there are already peace pacts and clandestine internal arrangements between participating nations.[23] However, total peace is still unattainable.
The Peace Process
Historically, the Middle East peace progression started in the Madrid Conference on 31 October 1991, and was divided into a bilateral conference and a multilateral conference. [24] This is an attempt by the international arena to start a peace process through negotiations involving Israel and the concerned Arab countries including Syria, Lebanon, the Palestinians, and Jordan. Its purpose was to serve as an entry and the opening forum for the participants.[25]
In this intricate historical happening, there are two parallel negotiation tracks namely bilateral and multilateral tracks. There are four separate sets of bilateral negotiations to put together Israel, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan and the PLO. In the bilateral, the Arab Core Parties which is comprised by Lebanon, Syria and a Joint Jordanian-Palestinian delegation would each negotiate separately with Israel. Their aim is to resolve the various issues since 1948 caused wars among them and stood in the way of making peace. The multilateral conference had in it many more participants in addition to the Core Parties and the discussion of five distinct topics with the aim of reinforcing and enhancing the work of the bilateral conference. These topics were: Palestinian Refugees, Water Resources, Regional Economic Development, Regional Security and Arms Control, and the Environment.[26]
Prior to the formal peace negotiations of these nations (Arab-Israeli), there are already previous peace pacts that tried to secure full peace among them. To name a few of them, here are some peace diplomacy and agreement attempts:
a. Paris Peace Conference in 1919;
b. Faisal-Weizmann Agreement also in 1919;
c. 1949 Armistice Agreements;
d. Camp David Accords in 1978;
e. Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty of 1979;
f. Madrid Conference of 1991;
g. Oslo Accords in 1993;
h. Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace in 1994;
i. Camp David 2000 Summit;
j. Peace process in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and projects working for peace among Israelis and Arabs; and
k. International law.
Aside from these well-documented Middle East peace attempts, there are also latest and recent proposals that go along with all of them namely: Sharm el-Sheik Summit of 2005 held last February 8; Geneva Accord in October 20, 2003; Road Map for Peace in April 30, 2003; The People’s Voice in July 27, 2002; Arab Peace Initiative in March 28, 2002; Elon Peace Plan in 2002; Taba Summit in January of 2001; Wye River Memorandum in October 23, 1998; Peace Now in 1978-; UN Security Council resolution 338 in October 22, 1973; UN Security Council resolution 242 in November 22, 1967 (Land for Peace in 1967); and peace proposals of Court Folke Bernadotte in 1947-1948. These are just but few among the publicized and documented peace proposals.[27]
Then, the birth of individual peace agreements among nations took into existence.
The Key: The Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace
After the long waiting for eventual peace, Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace came into existence. This is a peace treaty signed between the State of Israel and the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan in 1994. This treaty normalized the relations between the two countries and resolved territorial disputes between them. The signing also paved way to efforts of creating peace between Israel and the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO). It was held at the southern border crossing Wadi Arada on October 26, 1994 and was also a very significant event in the history because it made Jordan the second Arab nation who normalizes its relationship with Israel in addition to Egypt.[28]
The treaty was composed of a preamble, thirty articles, five annexes, and agreed minutes. Meanwhile, the connection between the two nations was described in terms of ambivalence. Historically, Jordan consistently subscribed to the anti-Zionist policy of the Arab world. There are several factors relative to the Jordan’s pragmatism towards Israel. Among these are their close geographic proximity, King Hussein’s pro-Western orientation and modest territorial aspirations, and Israel’s continuing efforts to established lasting peace among its neighboring nations.
From 1948 up to the signing of the treaty, a state of war existed between the two countries. Historical data from writers and political analysts said that a number of “back-channel” and at times secret communications between the two countries are present but often resulted in limitations of accommodations even during the times of war.[29]
The main principles of the agreement include borders, normalization, security and defense, Jerusalem, water, and Palestine refugees. The agreement on borders was set up to be the Jordan River. Israel gave Jordan 300 square-kilometers and leased 2850 dunams in the Arava. If the river changes its flow, the border would be reset by the Jordan River’s route. Meanwhile, normalization was mobilized by establishment of diplomatic relations and opening of embassies, granting tourists visas, opening flight connection, freedom of access to seaport and the establishment of a free trade zone and an industrial park in Arava. There is also a prohibition of unfriendly propaganda and negative expressions in the countries’ own sets of laws. The security and defense, on the other hand, provide respect for the sovereignty and territory of each side. This means that there is no entry without permission to some specified areas. There is also cooperation against terrorist activities and other joint-terror efforts. In the situation of Jerusalem, Jordan is given full preference when it comes to the status of the Muslim holy place in the city. As a guardian of the Muslim holy places, any peace agreement with the Palestine in the future is within their jurisdiction. Furthermore, both countries will develop just division of the water from the Jordan River and the underground deposits of Arava. Israel settled to give Jordan 50 million cubes of water each year and share the Yarmouk River. There are also joint labors of constructing other water resources alternatives to help each other during drought seasons. Finally, the agreed cooperation of both countries to relieve the suffering of the Palestinian refugees will work towards a solution. It will also be a four-way committee including Egypt and Palestinians.[30]
This treaty paved way to full peace realization of Jordan and Israel. This is now the base of the evolving peace among other Arab nations. The underlying principles are directed to the overall benefit of the parties concern for the development and advancement of certain aspects of living and governance.
The Positive Aftershocks: Jordan’s Stability and Economy
Jordan and Israel confirm their strategic alliance and understanding to recognize their shared nationalist interests, which underpinned their tacit relationship for several decades. Now, Israel’s treaties with Egypt and Jordan show that “full peace” is relative, varies in content, and evolves over a course of time. It actually sounded like a state of being if not taken into closer look. The stability of Jordan will eventually make way for further development of the country in favor with the circumstances of absence of war. Development and polygonal efforts in improving the status of the country will now induced.
The concept of “partnership” replaces the emphasis on “respect” while “cooperation” replaces the focus on “security”. These are the reflections of the reality that Jordan and Israel has been fighting over twenty eight years. The two sides have already developed universal understandings about shared threats and shared needs that are the core underpinnings of a truly warm peace. The peace treaty speaks only of an era of tranquility and joint efforts. Its contents are filled with mature, creative, and principled solutions to common problems; its detailed annexes focus not on security issues but on innovative ways to reconcile "Israeli private ownership rights within Jordanian sovereignty" and to find compromise solutions to the problem of water resources.[31]
The cooperation brought about by the treaty provides the establishment of formal diplomatic relations among Jordan and Israel. The treaty served as the detailed blueprint for ongoing political, social, economic, cultural, and human interactions. It also agreed to offer “good neighborly relation and cooperation” as the true source of security. Using it in realistic basis, this will include cooperation on both bilateral and regional bases. Bilateral basis will try to combat terrorism and prevent the cross-border infiltration. On the other hand, regional basis will create a Conference of Security and Cooperation in the Middle East granted that is free from weapons of mass destruction and freedom from “hostile alliances and coalitions.” [32]
It is also expected that the treaty is also the outline for detailed means of promoting cooperation and placing strong emphasis on the role the government plays and speak in terms of peace. Specifically, the treaty call upon each party in taking all possible legal and administrative measures in preventing the dissemination of hostile or discriminatory campaigns by any organization or individual present in the territory of either party. There are also efforts of ensuring “mutual enjoyment by each other’s citizens of due process of law” in the other country. The high sounding commitments in implementing mechanism and public forum will ensure the establishment of a special joint commission caring ti human rights. On the focus of religious and intellectual level of stability, the treaty include a number of laudable and remarkable commitments to promote “interfaith relations” to foster mutual understanding based on “shared historic values.” [33] Thus, respect will coexist among the nations.
Economically, the treaty is of great advantage to Jordan. Considering the fact that the country is a small one and possess a limited amount of natural resources, the country will explore the ways of expansion of its limited water supply and use it into more efficient ways. Through Israel-Jordan peace treaty, regional cooperation will help Jordan on external sources for the majority of economic and developmental requirements. With the presence of the treaty, there is now access to free trade that will actually bring revenue to the state’s economy. Aside from the Free Trade Agreement (FTA) with United States of America,[34] Jordan will encourage bilateral investment.
While pursuing economic reforms and increased trade, Jordan’s economy will continue to be growing regardless of external conditions, shocks, and regional unrest by means of the strict implementation of the treaty’s declaration of principle.
Israel and Peace among other Arab Countries
The eventual creation of peace agreements among Israel and other Arab countries will have major implications to the relationship of every state. Same as Jordan’s advantages to the peace treaty, cooperation will take root. Through eventual cooperation of all the leaders of the state higher chances of development is envisioned. There will be growth on the aspect of the economy granted that there is now a free access to resources like ports and other means of transport system. Trade and commerce will pave way on its broader perspective. Long-term developments on urban planning will work together for a common belief. The leadership that Israel offered will create greater expectations regarding economic windfall. Thus, if peace will totally take over the entire region, there is an assurance for a tiger-growing economy and immediate increase of national income.
The presence of this agreement will actually serve as the guiding contract for the total respect of sovereignty, cooperation of leaders, security of each nation, and the common good of every individual living in the region. As shown to the example of Israel and Jordan, this agreement will ensure full peace and acceptance to the fundamental beliefs of every citizen regardless of their personal claims and convictions.
Conclusion
The aspect of war among the specified nations can be considered as old as the universe. However, the entry of peace agreements and negotiations offered the brighter side of worldwide peace. The intervention of some powerful states in the maintenance of peace among these nations made a great impact to the current stability of their national economy and governance. Gone are the days of bullets and bombs. The acceptance, cooperation, and common principle served as the main instrument in creating peace. Now, a wider horizon for political, economic, social, cultural and national growth is waving towards the future.
But then again, the future is uncertain. The question still remained unanswered among other Arab nations. Will there be a hopeful peace negotiation between these two warring nations? Or as many say, shall it remain an endless conflict?
[1] “The Arab Israeli Conflict.” Document available at www.academicDB.com. Accessed October 4, 2005.
[2] van der Dennen, Johan M.G., The Origin of War: The Evolution of a Male-Coalitional Reproductive Strategy, Groningen, The Netherlands: The Origin Press, 1995.
[3] Ibid.
[4] Ibid.
[7] Ibid.
[9] Matthew 5:17-18, All Scripture passages are taken from The Holy Bible, New International Version, International Bible Society, Zondervan Bible Publishers, East Brunswick, New Jersey, 1984.
[10] Wagner, Clarence Jr. H., Christian Anti-Semitism, Jerusalem Courier Vol. 10 No. 4, 1992.
[11] Ibid.
[12] Ibid.
[13] Ibid.
[14] Arabia, The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, Columbia University Press, New York, 2000.
[15] Ibid.
[16] Bar-Siman-Tov, Yaacov, The Arab-Israeli Conflict: Learning Conflict Resolution, Journal of Peace Research Vol.31 No.1 pp.75-92, 1994
[17]Jon, David Kimche, A Clash of Destinies: The Arab-Jewish War and the Founding of the State of Israel. Praeger, New York, 1960.
[18] Jarbawi, Ali, The triangle of conflict: effort to secure peace among Israel, Jordan and the Palestine Liberation Organization, Foreign Policy, September 22, 1995.
[19] Ibid.
[20] Ibid.
[22] The Madrid Peace Process, document available from http://www.kinghussein.gov.jo. Access October 5, 2005.
[23] Shlaim, Avi (2001). The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World. W. W. Norton & Company.
[24] Haddadin, Munther J., Water in the Middle East Peace Process, The Geographical Journal, Volume 168, Issue 4. 2002. pp. 324+.
[25] Eisenberg, Laura Zittrain and Caplan, Neil (1998). Negotiating Arab-Israeli Peace: Patterns, Problems, and Possibilities. Indiana University Press.
[26] Ibid.
[27] Lists of Middle East Peace Proposals. Available at www.wikepidea.com. Accessed October 6, 2005.
[28] Khatchadourian, Haig, The Quest for Peace between Israel and the Palestinians. Peter Lang, New York, 2000.
[29] Zak, Moshe, Thirty Years of Clandestine Meetings: The Jordan-Israel Peace Treaty, Middle East Quarterly, March 1995.
[30] Treaty of Peace between the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan and the State of Israel, available at http://www.kinghussein.gov.jo/peacetreaty.html. Accessed October 6, 2005.
[31] Satloff, Robert B., The Jordan-Israel Peace Treaty: A Remarkable Document, Middle East Quarterly, March 1995.
[32] Ibid.
[33]Ibid.
[34] The Jordan-U.S. Free Trade Agreement. Document available at www.jordanusfta.com. Accessed October 6, 2005.
Arabia, The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, Columbia University Press,
New York, 2000.
Bar-Siman-Tov, Yaacov, The Arab-Israeli Conflict: Learning Conflict Resolution,
Journal of Peace Research Vol.31 No.1 pp.75-92, 1994
Eisenberg, Laura Zittrain and Caplan, Neil (1998). Negotiating Arab-Israeli
Peace: Patterns, Problems,Possibilities. Indiana University Press. pp. 5-12.
Haddadin, Munther J., Water in the Middle East Peace Process, The
Geographical Journal, Volume 168, Issue 4. 2002. pp. 324+.
Jarbawi, Ali, The triangle of conflict: effort to secure peace among Israel, Jordan
and the Palestine Liberation Organization, Foreign Policy, September 22, 1995.
Jon, David Kimche, A Clash of Destinies: The Arab-Jewish War and the
Founding of the State of Israel. Praeger, New York, 1960.
Khatchadourian, Haig, The Quest for Peace between Israel and the Palestinians.
Peter Lang, New York, 2000.
Lists of Middle East Peace Proposals. Available at www.wikepidea.com.
Accessed October 6, 2005.
Matthew 5:17-18, All Scripture passages are taken from The Holy Bible, New
International Version, International Bible Society, Zondervan Bible Publishers, East Brunswick, New Jersey, 1984.
Satloff, Robert B., The Jordan-Israel Peace Treaty: A Remarkable Document,
Middle East Quarterly, March 1995.
Shlaim, Avi (2001). The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World. W. W. Norton &
Company. pp. 8.
The Arab Israeli Conflict. Document available at www.academicDB.com.
Accessed October 4, 2005.
The Jordan-U.S. Free Trade Agreement. Document available at
www.jordanusfta.com. Accessed October 6, 2005.
The Madrid Peace Process. document available from
http://www.kinghussein.gov.jo. Accessed October 5, 2005.
Treaty of Peace between the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan and the State of
Israel, Document available at http://www.kinghussein.gov.jo/peacetreaty.html.
van der Dennen, Johan M.G., The Origin of War: The Evolution of a Male-
Coalitional Reproductive Strategy, Groningen, The Netherlands: The Origin Press, 1995.
Wagner, Clarence Jr. H., Christian Anti-Semitism, Jerusalem Courier Vol. 10 No.
4, 1992. pp. 10-13.
Zak, Moshe, Thirty Years of Clandestine Meetings: The Jordan-Israel Peace
Treaty, Middle East Quarterly, March 1995.
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