INTRODUCTION
The National Service Framework (NSF) covers UK’s highest priority health conditions. It is an inclusive mechanism that works out their two main objectives which are to set clear quality requirements for care basing it on the most and best available evidence of what treatments and services work most effectively for patients and to offer strategies and support to help out organisations achieve these. In the process of implementation of these two most important goals, the NSF board and authorities utilises the management theory in relation to various frameworks identified such as cancer, mental health, coronary heart disease, older people diabetes, renal services, children, and long term conditions. In this case, the chosen framework is the mental health.
Meanwhile, the management thought has evolved over the years. With this, there emerged a modern definition management (Witzel, 2003; Drejer, 2002; David, 2001). Management is the organizational process that includes strategic planning, setting; objectives, managing resources, deploying the human and financial assets needed to achieve objectives, and measuring results (Henderson, 1996). Management also includes several factors existing within and outside the boundary of the organization. Factors like human resources, financial and economic capability, and other related operational circumstances. Of the most important aspects of management are leadership and its paradigms. It is said that leadership is one of the most well-known and important subjects under study in the behavioural and management studies (Baruch, 1998).
In lieu with this, the main purpose of this paper is to provide a comprehensive discussion of leadership styles and management theory in relation to the National Service Framework for Mental Health. Using business related literatures, the selected leadership models are compared with each other particularly on their implications to the leader-follower relationship and the organizational culture. Further, the level of theoretical application will be appraised and arguments are formulated in relation to experience or fact or fad.
THE NATIONAL SERVICE FRAMEWORK (NSF) FOR MENTAL HEALTH: a brief overview
Statistically, one out of six adult suffers from one or other form of mental illness (Dobson 1999). Because of the belief that the prevalence and importance of mental illness has not had enough attention that it deserves, the Government was prompted to give this a much higher priority. The NSF for Mental Health, according to Frank Dobson – Secretary of State for Health “spells out national standards for mental health, what they aim to achieve, how they should be developed and delivered and how to measure performance in every part of the country”.
The NSF for mental health serves as a mechanism that will facilitate the driving up of quality and removing the wide and unacceptable variations of the provision. Specifically, this framework sets national standards and defines service models for promoting mental health and treating mental illness; puts in place underpinning programmes to support local delivery; and establishes milestones and a specific group of high-level performance indicators against which progress within agreed time-scales will be measured. Furthermore, it also concentrates on the mental health needs of working age adults up to 65, and covers health promotion, assessment and diagnosis, treatment, rehabilitation and care, and encompasses primary and specialist care and the roles of partner agencies. The Framework also touches on the needs of children and young people, highlighting areas where services for children and adults interact, for example the interface between services for 16 - 18 year olds, and the needs of children with a mentally ill parent (cited in NHS www.dh.gov.uk).
The national standards and service models which are realistic, challenging and measurable, and based on the best available evidence, are set in five areas namely: mental health promotion; primary care and access to services; effective services for people with severe mental illness; caring about carers; and preventing suicide. These standards will also help out to reduce variations in practice and deliver improvements for patients, service users and their carers, and for local health and social care communities - health authorities, local authorities, NHS trusts, primary care groups and trusts, and the independent sector (cited in NHS www.dh.gov.uk).
LEADERSHIP AND LEADERSHIP STYLE
As seen on the management structure of the Framework, leadership is somewhat centralised as it mainly controlled by the Department of Health and its authorities. Also, it could be seen that the lower level of management is located in the local implementing authorities. Thus, there is a need to identify the role of leadership in the management of services especially in providing mental health services to the patients.
For decades, the issue on leadership has been undertaken in various studies and related discussion. In fact the study on leadership dates back in 1921 (Hughes, Ginnett & Curphy, 1999, p. 8). Leadership comprises the aptitude and ability to inspire and influence the thinking, attitudes, and behavior of other people (Adler, 1991; Bass, 1985; Bass and Stogdill, 1989; Bennis & Nanus, 1985; Kotter, 1988). It is a process of social influence in which one person is able to enlist the aid and support of other individuals in the achievement of a common task (Chemers, 1997). The major points of this definition are that leadership is a group activity, is based on social influence, and revolves around a common task. Among the many definition of leadership, the most relevant definitions were given by Yukl (2002) and Schein (1992). Yukl (2002) defined leadership as the process of inspiring other people to comprehend and agree on what needs to be done and how to accomplish them effectively. In addition, leadership is also defined as the process of facilitating collective and individual efforts to fulfill shared objectives. Alternatively, Schein (1992) stated the creation of culture is the main essence of leadership and that both culture and leadership are two sides of a single coin. Relating leadership to management, Schein believed that leaders tend to establish and change culture, while administrators and managers live within the culture. While both related definitions differ from one another, both speak of the essential role leaders have to play in corporate culture. Although this specification seems relatively simple, the reality of leadership is very complex. The leadership styles sometimes can make an organizational change be successful or be a total failure.
Leadership is an important aspect of management. As stated by a few authors (e.g. Cohen & Brand, 1993; Hyde, 1992), management requires full leader participation and involvement instead of designating individual groups who will shoulder all the responsibilities. The involvement of leaders serves a number of purposes. For instance, this helps in preventing the resistance of employees to changes brought about by the implementation of quality systems. The enthusiasm and determination of the leaders to make the project work can positively influence other company staff. Leadership as administration is based on the ways that the cultures of the people are made and the ideas on how the companies are able to manage their human resources have helped with the ways that they can continue to improve not only with their services to their employers but also their services to the company (Jung & Yammarino, 2001). Furthermore, this also helps in creating a sense of commitment and loyalty (Hill, 1991).
LEADERSHIP STYLE AND MANAGEMENT: the missing connection
According to Laurance (2003), “the complaint that the mental health services are too coercive, too narrowly focused on medication and do not offer the kind of support that people want is widespread among people with mental problems”. People see a service focused on containment, with little regard for people's individual experiences, few resources devoted to talking therapies and an emphasis on crisis management rather than preventive care. With this illustrative issue, it could be said that the management theory and leadership is perceived to be imperative in enhancing quality care in the clinical practice.
It cannot be denied that one of the world’s major problems is to ensure the health of millions of people. Although there are may professionals who are certain about their works and whom can be considered as an exemplary member of the healthcare professionals, there are still issues that can be attached on them professionally. The individual healthcare professional’s ability to do what is proposed with proper competence, ability and skill is, of course, very crucial in ensuring safe clinical care. But professional competence is only part of the picture since nobody is perfect. Good people with good skills and good intentions, sometimes commit mistakes. As part of this professional issue, to be a effective health care practitioner, there is a call for understanding the dynamics based of caring as seen on a theoretical body of knowledge called management.
When it comes to mental patients, their special characteristics call for a more sensitive approach in taking care of their needs, hence, mental health practice in the mental institutions demand more from health attendants. Such challenge is experienced in the daily tasks practitioners have to accomplish in order to ensure that the needs of these patients are met. During the implementation of the NSF for mental health, there is a compelling need to implement changes such as new treatments, innovations, and different expectations. It recognised that all NSFs will have to develop if they are to stay relevant and credible in the vastly changing environment and growing needs of people. To ensure that Framework starts and stays to the most effective level, management function in order to achieve premeditated goals and procedures should be secured. Thus, the role of the management theory and its related factors are perceived to be fundamental in the whole process.
In management, the main work involves what is known as the functions of management: planning, organizing, directing/leading, coordinating, and controlling. These functions are goal-directed, interrelated and interdependent with each other. They also are viewed as being critical and universal for all levels of management, from supervisor to CEO in all types of organisations – business, government, educational, charitable – of any size. In this case, it can be presumed that the health care manager (e.g. nurse, midwife, clinical practitioner, etc.) is the man for the job. The basic process of management is the same, even though the context within which it is practiced is very different from management level to management level and from organisation to organisation (Desantis and Leal 1998). This management function is needed to be inculcated in the minds of health care practitioners as it is a common assumption that this will direct them in successful managerial practice.
Universally speaking, the managerial function is consists of planning, organizing, directing, coordinating, and controlling the resources of the organisation. These resources include people, jobs or positions, technology, facilities and equipment, materials and supplies, information, and money. Health care managers work in a dynamic environment and must anticipate and adapt to challenges. Moreover, they create and maintain an internal environment, commonly called the organisation, so that others can work efficiently in it.
Planning. Planning is commonly known as the process of formulating in advance as organised behaviour action. While it is true that people do not always plan their actions, it is inherent for any organisations to plan. However, whether dealing with the context by which planning is occurring or whether on the individual or organisational level, the process takes shape according to the prevailing attitudes, beliefs and goals that are involved. The organisation's objectives should reflect standards of success in financial and competitive performance, as well as acceptable levels of risk and rates of long-term growth (Roney 2004). The health care manager’s role in planning for the management function is to define goals for future performance of the organisation (Anthony et al. 1988). He/she also decides on the task and the resources to be utilised in achieving the predetermined goals. In meeting such goals, the health care manager applies significant materials or resources for the management of employees.
It is a fact that lack of formal planning (Baird et al. 1993) or poor planning process alone can decrease organisational performance or the worst, destroy it. The role of the health care manager is to ensure the best people, materials, procedures, and applications in implementing plans are employed. The presence of strategic planning in management minimizes the potential pitfalls of the said process such as uncertainty (Matthews and Scott 1995; Roney 2004). The success of several organisations lies on the effectiveness of the manager to plan, evaluate and materialise arrangements in connection to the achievement of the organisation’s goal.
In NSF for mental health, planning is said to be relevant as it determines the next actions, strategies, programmes, etc. to be done. In the macroscopic perspective, the importance of planning as a part of the management theory is that it serves as the initial and fundamental foundation of the whole system. Through planning, there is a systematic course of action and that mistakes are minimal if not totally negligible. On the other hand, the microscopic implications are seen in the professional and personal development of health care practitioners in relation to the exercise of their clinical roles and practices. Through planning, the heath care manager and the whole organisation are able to predict emerging challenges and threats, identify needs, evaluate results, and anticipate outcomes.
Organising. Thematically, organising is the act of putting similar elements following one or more rules (Morgenstern 1998). In an organisational perspective, it is the health care manager’s function that usually follows after the planning process. Generally, organising includes the specification and distribution of tasks to appropriate departments. It is also the assignment of authority and allocation of resources. The said ways are the immediate responsibilities of the manager. Process and decision models are useful to the manager in organising the work and intellectual contributions to be drawn from all levels of the management organisation (Roney 2004). Organising is crucial in developing inputs to planning, making planning decisions, and implementing strategy. To be effective, however, comprehensive management function in the business must be a continuous process. However, the organisational process that is conducted within the working environment is dependent on the plans that must be implemented.
In NSF setting, organising as a part of management theory indicates the requisites of involved individuals particularly to the implementation of specified plans. It also sees to it that the administration of activities and actions are in full response to the need of the mental health patient and care recipients. Organising covers the step-by-step system of achieving prescribed goals.
Directing/Leading. The role of the health care manager in directing/leading a management function is reliant to the development and implementation of designs or plans made. It is important that the health care manager must consider cost effective and time efficient ways in leading. His/her day-to-day responsibility of running the organisation and leading the group in developing the plans for the long term future is accounted to his/her leadership abilities and managerial prowess. While it is true that the manager can direct/lead the entire workforce, he/she is also connected to other factors such as the customers, the company’s budget and assets, and all other company’s resources (Roney 2004). Furthermore, the health care manager is encouraged to adapt participative approaches to directing/leading in order to elicit useful characteristics and elements that are useful for the firm’s success. The leadership styles the health care manager chooses to utilize is also a vital determinant of effective directing process. Thus, it is still fundamental to study the feasible applications to be implemented in accordance to the achievement of organization’s prime motives.
The Framework allows the exercise of the most applicable process of directing/leading specifically towards mental health care. Implementing the national standards and service models for promoting mental health is dependent on the capability of the health care manager to direct or lead. The implication of a satisfactory directing/leading process is seen on the effects in which the whole organisation benefits.
Coordinating. Coordination is the regulation of all the various aspects of the organisation into integrated and harmonious operations. It is the integrating and establishing of linkages to diverse sections of the organisation in order to accomplish a communal set of objectives. For instance, in coordinating information to all members of the organization, the health care manager’s role is to see to it that there is unity on all aspects of management. Managing the information that the company uses in its daily operations is crucial in any organisational set-up especially to the manager. Information is the blood stream of every organisation on which every staff and other personnel work on in order to meet the demands of the clients and customers per se. This is the reason why there should be proper flow of information within the organisation’s manager and the rest of the manpower. Direct link between the managers, supervisors, and the subordinate employees should be efficient enough to answer to the daily work loads of the members of the organisation. Communication between and among the members of the organisation is prioritised in order to provide a well-functioning operation within and outside the working organisation. As such, the NSF is able to give specific services to mental health patients and at the same time coordinated to the central Government. The role of the health care manager is to see to it that the national standards and service models for promoting mental health goes hand in hand with the other related factors such as national support for local action; finance – revenue, capital and estates; workforce planning, education and training; research and development; clinical decision support systems; and information strategy.
Controlling. Managers manage, in other words, by controlling and limiting the efforts of those below them (Witzel 2003). As a health care manager, it is the sole responsibility to implement plans but at the same time limiting the possible negative consequences. It has been demonstrated that the emphasis in successful management lies on the person in the job, not on the work; that efficiency is best secured by placing the emphasis on the person, and modifying the equipment, materials and methods to make the most of the person. It has, further, been recognized that the man's mind is a controlling factor in his efficiency, and has, by teaching, enabled the man to make the most of his powers (Gilbreth 1914, p. 3).
In the same manner, health care managers should be the pivot around which the organisation revolves, rather than directors controlling from the top down or officers leading from the front. All in all, the essential purpose of the management function is to provide the manager guiding methods in the effective implementation of specific managerial practices such as decision making and taking, human resources management and the like. Thus, managers need to keep themselves informed on the theory and practice of management in order to avoid managerial mistakes, minimize risks, and increase the productivity of the people and the organisation as a whole.
In organizational setting, there are several leadership styles that are utilized by the every corporate personnel or authority (e.g. supervisor, manager). Leadership style is the pattern of behavior used by a leader in attempting to influence group members and make decision regarding the mission, strategy, and operations of group activities (Scholl, 2000). The presence of leadership in management is also one effective factor in addressing technical and non-technical issues regarding the workplace. It is important however that the appropriate leadership style is used. The ever-changing trends in the various organisational communities worldwide permit every organization to use the most suited leadership styles. There are other types of leadership styles that can be utilized by the manager; however such styles are dependent to the strategic implementations of the organization’s mission and vision.
In this instance, the transformational leadership is applied. Historically, the concept of transformational leadership was introduced by James MacGregor Burns way back 1978 particularly on his treatment of political leadership (Bass, 1998). At present, this leadership theory was used in various applications such as organizational psychology. Bass noted that transformational leadership is an expansion of transactional leadership. Transactional leadership emphasizes the transaction or exchange that takes place among leaders, colleagues, and followers (Bass, 1998). This exchange is based on the leader discussing with others what is required and specifying the conditions and rewards these others will receive if they fulfill those requirements. In transformational leadership, strong personal identification of the leader is involved. Furthermore, the relationship in this leadership style is more than the fulfillment of self-interest or provision of rewards (Hater & Bass, 1988).
In general, transformational leadership consists of a leader who inspires followers to share a communal vision, encourages people to achieve the vision, and provides necessary resources for the development of personal potential. A leader who uses this leadership paradigm serves as a role model, supports optimism, musters commitment, and focuses on the followers’ call for eventual growth (Bass, 1996; Bass & Avolio, 1988, 1994a, 1994b). The transformational leadership approach consist four dimensions that serves as prime features: Charismatic Leadership (Idealized Influence, CL or IL), Inspirational Motivation (IL), Intellectual Stimulation (IS), and Individualized Consideration (IC) (Bass, 1998). These are the components that bring out all potential applications and results of the approach when used.
IMPLICATIONS AT MICRO AND MACRO LEVEL AND THE IMPACT ON PRACTICE
In transformational leadership, new learning is proliferated and supported as the leader serve as the mentor of the followers. In this way, the knowledge of the followers are being increased and developed at the same time serve as contribution to the establishment of new conventions and set of ideas useful in the achievement of organization’s unified goal. This will help in acquiring new knowledge and ability of the mental health providers in serving their patients. Bass (1996) declared that transformational leaders tolerate the mistakes of their follower due to the belief that through mistakes, new learning are set and discovered. The presence of freedom among the members of the organization paves way to the free flowing of information especially on the process of problem solving. In transformational leadership approach, two-way communications with the followers is utilized. With this, there is a guaranteed understanding, addressing, and solving of issues and concerns affecting each individual and everybody. However, the participation of followers to any process that involves them does not mean that transformational leadership is totally democratic. According to Avolio and Bass (2002, p. 6), “transformational leadership can be directive or participative, as well as democratic or authoritarian, elitist or leveling”.
Similarly, transformational leadership provides opportunity for followers to develop their full potentials. The transformational leader puts less attention on learning from others. Personal growth in servant leadership is the development of potential through encouragement and affirmation. In transformational leadership, encouragement pertains to innovation and creativity. Truly transformational leaders transcend their own self-interests for one of two reasons: utilitarian or moral principles (Avolio & Bass, 2002). If utilitarian, their objective is to (a) benefit the organization, society, the group, the attachment to the special group of which one is a member, the collective of individual members, and/or (b) to meet the challenges of the task or mission. If a matter of moral principles, the objective is to do the right thing—to do what fits principles of morality, responsibility, sense of discipline, and/or respect for authority, customs, rules, and traditions of a society. There is belief in the social responsibility of the leader and the organization.
The implications of transformational leadership in the organizational culture vary from different levels and aspects of application (e.g. organizational learning, activities, motivation, behaviors, relationship, performance management, etc.). In various activities of the organization, transformational leaders combine initiatives with risk taking as an essential factor of success and readiness to accommodate more valuable systems and practices. In the process of motivation, the transformational leaders are motivated by the reality of sense of mission to be competitive and stay in the dynamic state of the overall environment. In transformational leadership, leaders do more with colleagues and followers than set up simple exchanges or agreements (Avolio & Bass, 2002). They behave in ways to achieve superior results by employing one or more of the four components of transformational leadership. Transformational leaders are able to imagine alternatives for the future of their organization which can be seen in the organization vision – mission statement. Transformational leadership are able to adapt to the tension between what is and what is not controllable and initiate processes for coping and change in a prospective and proactive manner. In addition, Bass (1985) stated that transformational leadership occurs when a leader transforms, or changes, his or her followers in three important ways that together result in followers trusting the leader, performing behaviors that contribute to the achievement of organizational goals, and being motivated to perform at a high level. Transformational leaders: (1) increase subordinates’ awareness of the importance of their tasks and the importance of performing well; (2) make subordinates aware of their needs for personal growth, development, and accomplishment. (3) Motivate their subordinates to work for the good of the organization rather than exclusively for their own personal gain or benefit. The transformational leader also addresses the follower's sense of self-worth in order to engage the follower in true commitment and involvement in the effort at hand. This is what transformational leadership adds to the transactional exchange (Bass, 1998). Transformational leaders motivate others to do more than they originally intended and often even more than they thought possible (Bass, 1998). They set more challenging expectations and typically achieve higher performances. But, it is proven that transformational leadership has lesser emphasis on leader behavior (Beazley & Beggs, 2002). This argument was linked with the value of individuals on a specific emotional level.
Transformational leadership is linked with team performance (Dionne, et al. 2004). When this leadership method is perfected, the NSF for mental health across Great Britain will greatly improve as it explores the maximum attainment of goals. Evidence has accumulated that transformational leadership can move followers to exceed expected performance. Using this technique, the external environment of the organization is more dynamic and challenging. Organizational culture in transformational leadership is the image of the leader’s behavior being applied to organizational communication and reward mechanisms. According to Avolio and Bass (2002), true transformational leaders raise the level of moral maturity of those whom they lead. They convert their followers into leaders. They broaden and enlarge the interests of those whom they lead. They motivate their associates, colleagues, followers, clients, and even their bosses to go beyond their individual self-interests for the good of the group, organization, or society. Transformational leaders address each follower's sense of self-worth in order to engage the follower in true commitment and involvement in the effort at hand. This is one of the things that transformational leadership adds to the transactional exchange (Shamir, 1991). These implications can be considered to fall under the micro as well as the macro levels.
CONCLUSION / SYNTHESIS
The NSF for mental health is UK’s provision in providing care to mental health conditions. The involvement of management theory in the implementation of the Framework’s national standards and service models contributes to the most effective application of deliberate courses of action, programmes, activities, and objectives. The implication of effective application of the managerial functions will lead to a successful achievement of goals as management theory serve as the guiding principle in the overall process. Similarly, the macroscopic implication is seen on the efficient organisational performance as seen in the mental health conditions and practices. In the microscopic point of view, the management theory and functions develops the professional and personal abilities of the health care practitioner particularly in performance of his/her duties as directed with the NSF national standards and service models.
Thus, it is accepted to confirm that management theory and its function such as planning, organising, directing/leading, coordinating, and controlling are essential in the implementation of the NSF for mental health. The discussion above revealed the benefits of health care managers’ knowledge of instrumental and conceptual theories and practice of management particularly in the general performance of the daily tasks. Through effective and efficient strategic planning and management applied by the health care manager, the organisation’s resources, systems, and administrators can add value to the services delivered to customers, reduce risks in the organisation, lessen the costs of development and service delivery, and encourage improvement in internal management processes and external service implementation.
In this aspect, the leadership strategies, styles and models like transformational leadership that are successful applied in respective organizations are replicated and applied by other area of specializations. In effect, the influence of the leader in global leadership transformation is included in the extensive responsibility they share to the international organisational setting. As leaders and health providers work in a common goal, they make international changes to which broad and multi-cultural entities respond to. To end, a crucial question must be answered. What is the use of creating these philosophies if they are not taken to action? They would look like mere words, mere sentences that gives idea. If these are not taken into action, nothing will take effect. No results will be achieved.
Let leadership be a challenge for everybody, particularly to the aspiring leaders and ward managers. This is a challenge not just for sake of the success of any organization or related endeavor but for the individual sake of anyone who ventures on it. People in the top position are not the only people who need to acquire the traits of being a great leader. Thus, the principles underpinning the transformational leadership as well as other leadership paradigms must materialized instead of being mere theories that lacks ultimate application. With the present conditions around, the challenge of leadership starts now!
To employ these processes, there is the need to consider the continuous learning of the health care manager to the emerging and latest trends in the management practice. Risks, opportunities, ability of managers to handle and use new knowledge, and the effectiveness in the organisational setting are very imperative. Intensive preparation and study should be conducted in order to ensure that managers are fully equipped and ready to face the challenges as well as to successfully able to perform its deliberate functions. The new information acquired from organisational and management learning activities will have value and increases insight into organisational needs and the way the business is looked at. Adding more and more advantages to the whole organisation and solving the problems as they occur will eventually lead to success and growth as mentioned. Regardless of the unprecedented drawbacks of such ideas when being used, every organisation and its health care managers are required to undergo constant knowledge progression and management must administer and control them in the most beneficial ways possible.
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