Staff
development refers to the updating the knowledge and attitudes of the staff
with the end in view of improving their skills and performance to achieve
organizational objectives. Staff
development plays a significant function in the educational
establishment as it maximizes the expertise of the teachers and staff. Swanson (1994) defined expertise as “the
optimal level in which a person is able and is expected to perform within the
specialized realm of human activity.” Thus, development of workplace expertise through staff development has
been significant to optimal performance of teachers.
In
the perspective of business, a properly trained work-forced at all levels is
important in any organization for its continued success and survival so that it
can meet the challenge of change be it economic, technological, social,
political, legal or ethical. Similarly, educational institutions are developing
its staff for the same reason.
Therefore, staff development programs in schools should be stressing on definite
objectives to achieve which harmonize with accepted psychologies and
philosophies of education. It is important that school faculty members should
try new ideas in teaching from training to the actual teaching sessions.
The
major goal of staff development is to provide the best
objectives, learning opportunities, and evaluation procedures for students.
Assessing needs of teachers to improve the curriculum is a must. Inservice
education programs may then be built sequentially on teaching skills presently
possessed by teachers individually. Quality sequence is vital when moving from
what is to what should be in the teacher's repertoire.
The
length of time for staff development, meals, participation,
recognition, and personal needs of teachers must be met. Meeting each need of
teachers in staff development programs might well stress
increased optimal achievement for participants. Teachers desire to be
recognized for excellence in teaching emphasized in ongoing lessons and units.
Being accepted as true professionals assists teachers to increasingly become
the quality of person desired.
Significantly,
staff development is needed in any organization as well as in the educational
institutions in order to improve the job performance skills of the staff or
groups of staff; improve the teacher’s individual job performance skills; to
extend the experience of an individual teacher for career development or
promotion purposes; to develop the professional knowledge and understanding of
an individual teacher; to extend the personal or general education of an
individual; to make staff feel valued; to promote job satisfaction; to develop
an enhanced view of the job; to enable teachers to anticipate and prepare for change;
and to clarify the whole school or department's policy
Ultimately, all teacher development
will have as one of its aims the improvement of pupil learning. Additionally, Blandford
(2000) emphasizes that professional development may enable practitioners to
widen their understanding of society.
If schools are about promoting the
learning of pupils in a changing world and learning is worthwhile and not a
static or bounded process, then the learning of education professionals
throughout their careers is essential (Hopkins, Ainscow and West, 1994;
Southworth, 1994; Sammons, Hillman and Mortimore, 1995; Green, 1999). The
linking of teachers' development to the raising of pupils' standards of
achievement is central to policy in staff development programs for teachers.
The process of staff development
provides a way of moving from identifying needs to setting up a series of
actions which aim to do something about fulfilling them. Staff development is
defined as the full range of planned activities and experiences which
contribute to maintaining and developing professional expertise. Staff
development was seen to be vital for ensuring the quality of learning and
teaching in schools; it provided a means of continuing the development of
teachers as members of a profession operating in a changing educational world.
Staff development is way to identify
the professional development needs and reconciling the tensions between the
individual and school priorities. It is seen as a process of review and about
improvement and performance enhancement through performance management.
Staff development is a way of serving
the needs of the school, department team or an individual and of individual
professional development needs as varying in terms of how far they relate to
school department or team priorities. It has been argued that 'teacher
development and school development must go hand in hand. Generally, according
to Watson and Fullan (1992) “you cannot have one without the other.” It has
also been suggested by Fullan that, whereas in the past there has often been a
preoccupation with helping both individuals and schools handle individual
changes, “there is now an increasing need to deal with changes that affect the
culture and structure of schools, restructuring roles and reorganizing
responsibilities, including those of students and parents” (Fullan, 1982).
Areas of Staff Development
Motivation
Motivating
can be defined as getting people to contribute their maximum effort toward the
attainment of organizational objectives. Additionally, it is the creation of
working conditions that will help arouse the desire of the staff to achieve
these objectives. According to Hoy and Miskel (1991), “motivation is consists
of complex forces that start and maintain voluntary activity that is undertaken
to achieve personal goals.”
There
are various theories explaining the concept of motivation. According to the
theory of Maslow (1954), every person has wants that are needed to be
satisfied. Maslow postulates the five hierarchy of needs which includes
physiological needs, security needs, social needs, esteem needs, and
self-actualization in which he acclaimed that once the low level needs are
satisfied it ceases to be the motivator of man and move to the next level of
needs (Maslow, 1954).
Another
theory formulated by Herzberg (1959), is the two-factor theory in motivation in
which identified two factors that would explain motivation. Thes consist of
hygiene factors (salary, supervision, status, job security, working conditions,
company policy and interpersonal relations) which remove the possible cause of
dissatisfaction and the motivators (job content, recognition, advancement, the
possibility of growth, responsibility and achievement).
These
theories of motivation can give instances and areas of emphasis in developing
the staff. Thus, each of the faculty members should go into the process of
staff development to improve the school curriculum.
Staff
development is one that is emphasized by motivation. With the proper training
and with the confidence of the staff on their capabilities, the staff is more
motivated to do their job and to improve their performance. It is also
necessary for the teachers have the quality learning environment. With staff
development, teachers are able to teach the students learn, develop and
achieve.
Staff Development through Training
Training
may be defined as a carefully planned and handheld effort of management to
impart know-how and develop or improve certain phases of an individual’s
skills, attitudes, discipline, behavior, or knowledge to make him either more
effective on his present job or better qualified for another job. Training
programs is done for various reasons but most of these reasons are based on to
developing the performance of the person to his job.
Teacher training is a professional
preparation of teachers, usually through formal course work and practice
teaching. Although the concept of teaching as a profession is fairly new, most
teachers in industrialized nations today are college or university educated.
The amount of preparatory training, however, varies greatly worldwide.
Certification requirements for
teaching have advanced with educational opportunity, although they vary widely
from country to country. The trend in certification has been toward requiring
more complete training, with practice teaching and extensive graduate work for
specialized positions. In many countries extension or summer graduate work is
required of teachers or is made a prerequisite for advancement. A number of
graduate professional degrees are now offered, including the Master of Arts in
Teaching and the Doctor of Education. While the professional requirements for
teaching in the United
States have in the past stressed method and
psychology, increasing emphasis is now being placed on subject-matter
specialization; European countries have generally stressed scholarship.
Improvements in teacher training led
to demands for professional recognition and benefits. These resulted in the
formation of several international organizations as well as local and national
teachers' unions. The success of teacher training for elementary and secondary
education has led some college administrations to consider requiring such
training for college teaching also.
Teachers are required to be
competent in practice having mastered a body of knowledge. Staff development
practices are regarded as an essential component in maintaining and advancing
individual personal and professional abilities (Friedman and Phillips, 2001).
It is well established that
the continuing staff development for teachers is regarded as essential in
creating effective educational organizations and in raising the standards of
learner achievement (Kydd et al., 1997; O'Brien and MacBeath, 1999;
Moon, 2000). Staff development has been associated with improving classroom
performance, engaging with opportunities created by change initiatives,
preparing teachers for specialist roles within the organization, preparing
teachers for roles in management and leadership, and enabling the sharing of
good practices through networking arrangements.
Staff development has been
defined in Learning and Teaching: A Strategy for Professional Development
(DfES, 2001a) as: 'any activity that increases the skills, knowledge or
understanding of teachers, and their effectiveness in schools.'
To be able to effectively
establish a staff development program, the educational establishment of a
climate in which open networking between colleagues enables mutual support and
reflection to take place has been shown to be an important element in the
effective management of school staff development cultures (Law and Glover,
1996).
However, not all schools
benefit from the presence of such a climate (Law, 1999). In educational organizations,
leadership and management teams should consider whether staff collaboration is
facilitated or hindered by the professional development culture they have
created. For example, Williams et al. (2001) point out that support and
development accorded to newly qualified teachers is of a much higher order in
schools where the culture is one of collaboration when compared to schools with
cultures denoted by individualism. Organizational leadership and management
exercises significant influence on teacher development.
Staff
Development through Performance Management
The performance management
framework (DfEE, 2000a, b) leads teachers to expect a focus upon the
improvement of their knowledge and skills, and also offers financial reward for
those who are deemed to be performing well. Performance management may be
viewed as an important element in raising professional standards or as an
element of governmental intervention to exact greater efficiency, effectiveness
and accountability (Down et al., 1999; Gleeson and Husbands, 2001).In
essence, performance management is meant to identify teacher strengths and
weaknesses with respect to addressing performance targets set so that
development needs are identified and recognized.
Leaders, whether in schools or
colleges, can influence the culture and purpose of their organizations and, as
such, they are able to create an environment which can influence job-related
attitudes. Evans (2001) suggests that leadership can shape work contexts that
either match or are at odds with what individuals want in relation to equity
and justice, organizational efficiency, interpersonal relations, collegiality
and self-conception and self-image.
School and college leaders can make
significant interventions to enhance the working lives of teachers. They can
influence the emotional climate of their organizations and, in so doing,
motivate staff and impact positively upon teachers' working lives. In view of
the extensive methodology available to access cultural information within organizations
(Locatelli and West, 1996; Higgins-D'Alessandro and Sadh, 1997; Cartwright et
al., 1999), school and college leadership training should perhaps include
stronger emphasis on cultural change methodology aimed at improving teacher
professional experience, satisfaction and increasing the likelihood of
retention.
Appraisal
Appraisal provides opportunities for staff development
that is, reflection, paired observation and feedback, collaboration involving
the exchange of ideas and mutual support. Appraisal can also be a precise way
of identifying professional
development needs of teachers. It can also be a means of reconciling school and individual
development needs within financial constraints by logging and making explicit
differences and the reasons for them. It can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of staff development ptograms.
Appraisal puts development on the agenda
of all teachers on a regular basis.
Appraisal is not simply about
identifying individual development needs of teachers. The basic purpose of the
review and development model of appraisal is to help teachers identify
priorities or targets for future action. A necessary follow-on then is how to
give teachers the support they need in order to achieve their targets. Such
support may or may not include professional development. Whether or not the
targets of an individual teacher include professional development support, the
process of appraisal can be a valuable development opportunity in its own
right.
Experience of working on appraisal
both in the pilot study and since, summarized by Bollington et al.
(1990), demonstrates that appraisal should not become an end in itself. Rather
it is a means to an end in that it provides an opportunity for detailed
discussion and reflection on individual and school priorities. There is not
much point in becoming good at appraisal for its own sake; the key is to use
appraisal to provide support for development in the areas of curriculum,
management, teaching and learning. Using the process to look at a manageable
number of priority areas is likely to be more satisfactory than using it to
carry out a general yet superficial review of all aspects of someone's work.
Appraisal has the potential for
helping individuals' effectiveness, skills and motivation. On the other, it has
the potential for enabling a school to make better use of people, to develop
and grow, and to ensure that individuals perceive their jobs and roles in the
context of the needs of the whole. The following are the some of the benefits
of performance appraisal.
1. Motivate credit staff to improve job performance.
Enhance the impact of coaching and mentoring efforts that are already taking
place between employees and their managers
2.
Establish a reasonably uniform set of performance standards that are consistent
with company values. Confirm that employees possess the skills or attributes
needed to successfully fulfill particular jobs
3.
Resolve difficulties in the supervisor-employee
relationship. Keep staff focused
on business goals and objectives
4.
Help assess training and staff development needs. Motivate employees
to upgrade their skills and job knowledge so they can make more meaningful
contributions to the department
5.
Provide an objective and legally defensible basis for key human resources
decisions, including merit pay increases, promotions and terminations
Staff Development through
Coaching and Mentoring
Given a growing interest in coaching
and mentoring as means to enhance development of the teachers, the challenge
associated with the successful management of these mechanisms emerges. Despite
a rareness of teacher collaboration in many organizations (Harris, 2001), the
encouragement of close partnerships between colleagues may help reduce or
overcome any non-collaborative balkanization (Beatty, 2000) and yield the
following benefits:
Ø
The encouragement of collaboration may also be viewed as
a tool of teacher empowerment. For example, Lieberman and Miller (2000) have
suggested that teachers may well experience enhanced confidence and self-esteem
through the mutual support offered by other colleagues.
Ø
The engagement of support using coaching, mentoring and
networking activities may assist in the transfer of teacher learning to pupil
or student learning, resulting in greater impact within the classroom and the
increased potential to raise standards and attainment (Joyce and Showers, 1988;
Oldroyd and Hall, 1988; Wallace, 1996; Swafford, 1998; Rhodes and
Houghton-Hill, 2000).
Ø
The locus of control of professional development may
change beneficially, allowing teachers greater ownership of professional
development and its potential impact, rather than professional development and
change being seen as an imposition by others (Whitmore, 1995; Beatty, 2000;
Downey, 2001).
Ø
Enhanced individual, team and organisational performance
may emerge by sharing and developing practice within an atmosphere of mutual
trust and respect (DfES, 2001a, b, c, d).
Coaching
Coaching represents a peer-networking
interaction (working together) which draws upon collaboration and mutual trust.
It is usually a short-term relationship which can be used to help embed change,
raise performance, raise impact and assist in skill development. Good coaches
will be active with the establishment of learners' needs, be sensitive to
preferred learning styles and will ensure that the learner is able to engage in
learning.
Mentoring
Mentoring represents a peer-networking
interaction which draws upon collaboration and mutual trust. It is usually a
longer term relationship which can be used to support individuals or groups to
embed change, improve performance, raise impact and assist in personal and
professional development. Mentoring may be used to support individuals through
a combination of coaching and counseling from induction through to extended professional
relationships. While coaching is an enabling and helping process, mentoring is
essentially a supportive process.
Barriers
and Ways to overcome them
Coaching and mentoring are an
effective means of developing the teachers however there are barriers
identified in the implementation of such collaboration. Implementation of such
mechanisms and the creation of an environment in which mutual support can
flourish may present challenges within some organizations.
For example, West-Burnham and
O'Sullivan (1998) highlight the need for high-quality personal and
interpersonal skills, mutual trust, confidence and respect within successful
coaching relationships.
However, it is known that
collaboration between individuals so they can work and learn together is not
prevalent in many organizations (Harris, 2001). Close partnership and
collaboration between colleagues is an important factor in enabling coaching
and mentoring to flourish. In organizations where collaboration and trust
between individuals is weak or not established, approaches to professional
development which embrace these mechanisms have implications for leadership and
management teams in those organizations.
Clement and Vandenberghe (2001) have
established the importance of collegial interactions between staff and
particularly the role of school leaders in creating workplace conditions which
allow learning opportunities and learning space for teachers, and so influence
positively the professional development experience of teachers. Other important
leadership and management issues relate to the acquisition and use of
information and training, the careful selection of individuals as coaches and
mentors, engaging staff commitment to a management style that incorporates
coaching, mentoring and peer-networking, the use of accurate needs analysis and
time constraints.
Teacher
collaboration
The potential benefits of coaching,
mentoring and peer-networking activities within organizations stem from the
requirement for close partnership between colleagues within an environment of
trust, safety, support and mutual respect (Ponzio, 1987; Tharp and Gallimore,
1988; West-Burnham and O'Sullivan, 1998; Harris, 2000, 2001; Thompson, 2001).
In organizations where the professional development culture already includes
strong teacher collaboration, the adoption of coaching, mentoring and
peer-networking should present fewer problems for staff. However, in many organizations
it is known that teacher collaboration is not prevalent (Harris, 2001) and
leadership and management intervention may be necessary to enable mutual
teacher support to flourish.
Information
and training
The rareness of information currently
available in the implementation of desirable working standards and the skill
and training requirements of staff responsible for helping colleagues learn
needs to be addressed if the potential benefits of these mechanisms are to be realized.
Nationally or internationally agreed guidance concerning good practices in
coaching and mentoring in schools and colleges would be of use to teachers,
leadership and management teams, trainers and others concerned with the raising
of standards and attainment in schools and colleges.
Selection of
individuals
The selection of coaches and mentors
demands that individuals are sought who possess personal and professional qualities
of the highest order (West-Burnham and O'Sullivan, 1998). For example,
insensitive and judgmental feedback regarding performance can damage learning
relationships and encourage teachers to have negative views of their own
abilities (Watkins and Whalley, 2000). In offering feedback, coaches and
mentors would ideally have the potential to surpass the instrumental level of
mechanistic direction for colleagues and would ideally foster opportunities to
reflect deeply on practice.
Thompson (2001) has suggested that
coaching without reflection will not enable learning to take place, and
West-Burnham and O'Sullivan (1998) point out that both coaching and reflection
are required in order to produce a consolidated and internalized learning
experience. Coaches and mentors are responsible for assisting the learning of
colleagues who are adults, and with this goes the requirement to choose and
train individuals who can sustain skills in enabling adults to learn. For example,
Collarbone (2000) has identified that coaching requires the recognition that
adults learn for specific purposes and that they must be motivated to want to
learn.
Discussing the mentoring of adults,
Daloz (1998) identifies potential problems which may damage intended learning
relationships between colleagues. It is suggested that problems could stem from
differing ethics, possible misuse of power or excessive control, or from
exaggerated emotional dependence by either party.
Engaging
staff commitment
Approaches to professional development
which ignore the issue of who is in control of the development are missing a
vital component. Higgins and Leat (1997) point out that it is important to recognize
that people are less likely to be receptive or positive with regard to
professional development initiatives if they think they are being manipulated.
Leadership and management teams need to consider how they will convince staff
of the potential benefits of a management style which involves coaching, mentoring
and peer-networking. For example, if the work of the coach or mentor becomes
equated with only supervision due to weakness, staff may perceive an over-managerial
element rather than a true collaborative drive to support the learning of all
teachers.
Needs
analysis
In engaging coaching, mentoring or
networking activities to support professional learning and teacher performance,
leadership and management teams will need to carefully identify specific
teacher learning needs in order to raise standards and attainment within their organizations.
An accurate diagnosis of the causes of poor performance would enable better
targeting of support and thus provide a more effective and efficient
remediation to take place.
This is illustrated by the work of Wragg
(2000), who found that where poorly performing teachers did improve their
performance, it was often because they had been given in-house support and a
fellow teacher as mentor, which in turn had made an impact on their classroom
teaching. Importantly, head teachers who had successfully pursued such a
support strategy were able to make precise judgments about the nature of help
needed.
Time
constraints
Given severe time constraints in
schools due to teacher workload (Rhodes and Houghton-Hill, 2000; Thompson,
2001; GTC, 2002), leadership and management teams should consider how
sufficient time may be created to allow the coach or mentor to undertake their
role. This may be particularly problematic in schools where all staff are
engaged in full-time class contact. It is reasonable to assume that staff in
some schools and colleges may be reluctant to take on the additional
responsibilities inherent in coaching and mentoring.
Leadership and management teams may
wish to consider the use of a consultant to undertake a coaching or mentoring
role. Each educational organization has a unique context and an individual
improvement journey to follow. Those organizations choosing to adopt coaching
and mentoring mechanisms need to consider their position with respect to
developing true collegiality. For example, some organizations may seek to
develop towards a professional learning community (Thompson, 2001), whereas
others may adopt a more limited vision and employ these mechanisms
strategically as quick fixes for immediate performance difficulties.
Given that organizations spend
significant sums of money on professional development with the intention of
raising teacher performance (Rhodes and Houghton-Hill, 2000; Rhodes, 2001), organizations
actively seeking the potential benefits of coaching, mentoring and
peer-networking relationships will also need to consider the placement of these
mechanisms as part of normal working patterns in order to engender a climate of
safety and trust.
Teacher
Retention
The linkage between individual
development and teacher retention has received much recent attention. Dean
(2001) suggests that premature loss of experienced teachers may be curtailed or
prevented through staff development activities such as sabbaticals which would
allow for personal refreshment.
An Ofsted (2003) evaluation of the
quality and effectiveness of early professional development undertaken by
teachers suggested that in about half of the schools in the survey (n = 61)
teachers felt that development activities had strengthened their commitment to
a career in teaching. Rowe and Sykes (1989) have found the potential for strong
positive effects of individual development on teachers' professional
self-perceptions, energy, enthusiasm and satisfaction.
Beatty (2000) has shown that
self-directed professional learning, personal and shared reflection, and
authentic collaboration in a supportive study group environment can create
changes in teachers' perceptions of themselves and their work and catalyze
professional growth. A report by Day et al. (2002) has suggested that
provision of opportunities for teachers to reflect on their teaching and engage
in dialogue about it with other teachers can help to build motivation and
commitment.
Given that teacher collaboration and
mutual support offer the potential to raise teacher confidence and facilitate
teacher professional learning (Rhodes and Beneicke, 2002), school and college
leadership teams need to consider how productive collaboration can be
engendered within the context of their own organizations, how they might remove
obstacles to sharing and how they may offer support as well as challenge. Emphasizing
the importance of school leadership with respect to the outcomes experienced by
teachers engaging in professional development, Earley et al. (2002) have
recommended that a key component of leadership programs should include managing
professional development for others as well as inclusion of theoretical
frameworks which underpin professional learning.
Conclusion
In summary, staff
development should stress
meaning, purpose, high morale, provision for individual differences, interest,
quality attitudes, goal attainment, acceptance, and respect for others, problem
solving skills, and self-concept development
by participants. Thus, a positive environment must emphasize heavy teacher
input when staff development programs are being
considered. The concerns of teachers then are vital to consider.
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