[Essay] Teaching Mathematics

Introduction 

This paper discusses the “Factors Affecting the Academic Performance of Children in Math particularly in counting”. Basically, the research will analyze and investigate the different variables that affect the learning capabilities of the students. This shall include a discussion on the positive and negative variables related to the academic performance of the students in mathematics; an analysis of performance of the Allfarthing Primary school students in relation to mathematics education stability was also conducted. Particularly, the research will focus on examining the impact of these variables to the progress of both the student and education system. 

Discussions

In this changing world, those who understand and can do mathematics will have significantly enhanced opportunities and options for shaping their future (NCTM, 2000). On the other hand, Mevarech, Z. and Bracha Kramarski (1997) developed the instructional strategy that can be applied to heterogeneous classrooms in their study "IMPROVE-Multidimensional Method for Teaching Mathematics in Heterogeneous Classrooms". The strategy, IMPROVE, (Introducing new concepts, Metacognitive questioning, Practicing, Reviewing and reducing difficulties, Obtaining mastery, Verification, and Enrichment) has been proven to keep mathematics progress at a constant pace throughout the school year. The academic group as a whole continued to progress, and the progress of one academic group does not come at the expense of the other groups. It is important for teachers to have consistent strategy they could use in their teaching. The study of Alsup, J.K. and Sprigler, M.J. (2003), shows that the classroom teacher's perspective should consider the cost and time being spent by teachers and school district to implement reform math. Moreover, a reform mathematics curriculum is expensive to implement; teachers must be trained and supplementary kits must be purchased. Such expenses, in the author’s opinion, are questionable, since a reform mathematics curriculum did not promote an increase in the student achievement. In classroom, a traditional mathematics curriculum was superior with regard to teaching skills and procedural competency and, thus, would help students at the high school level, since success in high-school math courses in school district is "built upon the foundation of facts and procedures." Alsup, J.K. and Sprigler, M.J. (2003). Basically, Alsup, J.K. and Sprigler, M.J. (2003) statement should be considered since it depicts the future of mathematics education. In connection to cost and time being spent to receive quality education, the teachers and school administrators should give extra effort in designing teaching strategies that is applicable to London education. On the other hand, in relation to the variables of learning, the school environment is the broader context of the school that allows for classroom instruction and student learning (Tunney, 1996). A transformation to a community should take place throughout the school wide environment by maximizing the number of positive interactions with students and parents. Teachers are capable of producing profound and positive changes in student behaviours and learning by effectively modeling the positive processes, skills, and attitudes that parents teach (Hindle, 1996). 

School Size

Recent research on the effect of school size on student achievement indicates that a small school strategy may be a powerful school improvement model. While there is no single definition of “smallness,” some research indicates that an effective size for an elementary school is in the range of 300-400 students and that 400-800 students is appropriate for a secondary school (Cotton, 1996). Lee and Smith (1996) argue that slightly larger secondary schools, from 600-900 students, are necessary for good curricular diversity. On the other hand, small school advocates such as Deborah Meier and Ted Sizer of the Coalition of Essential Schools, believe that no secondary school should exceed 300 students (Cushman, 1997). For both elementary and secondary students of all ability levels and in all kinds of settings, research has repeatedly found small schools to be superior to large schools on most measures and equal to them on the rest. A recent review of 103 studies identifies the relationship of school size to various aspects of schooling (Cotton, 1996): Academic achievement in small schools is at least equal, and often superior, to that of large schools. The effects of small schools on the achievement of ethnic minority students and students of low socioeconomic status are the most positive of all. Student attitudes toward school in general and toward particular school subjects are more positive in small schools. Student social behavior, as measured by truancy, discipline problems, violence, theft, substance abuse, and gang participation, is more positive in small schools. Levels of extracurricular participation are much higher and more varied in small schools than large ones. Student attendance is better in small schools than in large ones, especially with minority or low SES students. A smaller percentage of students drop out of small schools than large ones. Students have a greater sense of belonging in small schools than in large ones. Interpersonal relations between and among students, teachers, and administrators are more positive in small schools than in large ones. Student academic and general self-regard is higher in small schools than in large schools. Students from small and large high schools perform comparably on college-related variables, such as grades, admissions, and graduation rates. Despite the common belief that larger schools have higher quality curricula than small schools, no reliable relationship exists between school size and curriculum quality. Larger schools are not necessarily less expensive to operate than small schools. Small high schools cost more money only if one tries to maintain the big-school infrastructure (e.g., a large bureaucracy). Apparenlty, in order to provide an optimal learning environment for students, one must first work to establish a classroom community (Au, 1993). A classroom community provides each child with space to develop specific capabilities and to experience a sense of inner balance and wholeness in a community with others. The school environment is the broader context of the school that allows for classroom instruction and student learning (Tunney, 1996). A transformation to a community should take place throughout the school wide environment by maximizing the number of positive interactions with students and parents. Teachers are capable of producing profound and positive changes in student behaviors and learning by effectively modeling the positive processes, skills, and attitudes that parents teach (Hindle, 1996). Bringing members of a class together for certain activities engenders the feeling of belonging to a group and in turn establishes class spirit (Bergin, 1999). With this, students who feel that they belong to a group have power in decision-making and have freedom of choices (Tunney, 1996). The classroom community can be developed by a number of means. Students should develop a process of understanding, sharing, compassion and empathy. The classroom should be referred to by the teacher as "our classroom" rather than "my classroom". The development of a community is moving from doing things TO students to doing things FOR students (Tunney, 1996). 

Developmental Skills and Abilities of Children

Basically, knowledge of child development traditionally has been viewed as a core component for designing activities and evaluating curriculum in early childhood education (Charlesworth, Hart, Burts, & DeWolf, 1993 and Hyson, 1996). In addition, a considerable body of research indicates that teacher beliefs influence decision-making in the classroom (Fang, 1996). In addition, the consideration of the learning skills of the students in mathematics particularly to counting should be understood. Due to the considerable speed and interrelated nature of development during early childhood, early childhood educators tend to approach their mission from a more holistic perspective than do educators of older children. This philosophy of educating the whole child has led early education theorists to emphasize the importance of addressing children's social and emotional needs as well as their cognitive and physical ones (Biber, 1984 and Hendrick, 1996). Echoing these sentiments, the current dominant approach to early education (i.e., developmentally appropriate practice) stresses that education practice should be tailored to fit the developmental level of the children being served (Bredekamp & Copple, 1997). This approach argues that the educational outcomes that teachers focus on should change with children's developmental level, and it cautions against introducing academic content so early in the educational process that children have not attained the requisite developmental skills and abilities to allow comprehension of that content (Bredekamp & Shepard, 1989; Elkind, 1987; Katz, 1994). This early introduction of academic content is not only believed to be ineffective in terms of longterm learning goals, but also leads to increased levels of stress in children (Burts et al., 1992), and likely has a negative impact on their dispositions towards learning and the development of their self-conceptions, Katz & Chard, 1989). On the other hand, early childhood teachers' beliefs about educational practice are shaped both by the training they receive (Brown & Rose, 1995) and by their personal experiences working with children in the classroom (Williams, 1996). Examining these beliefs is important because research indicates that teachers' beliefs influence classroom practice. Measures of teachers' beliefs related to developmentally appropriate practice have been found to be related to their use of instructional methods that are consistent with that approach (Charlesworth, Hart, Burts, Thommason, Mosley, & Fleege, 1993). Similar relations between teachers' expressed beliefs and classroom practices related to literacy instruction (Wing, 1989) and children's play (Spidell, 1989) also have been observed. Despite these findings linking teachers' beliefs to classroom practice, it should be noted that this relation is often less than isomorphic, and that some studies report considerable inconsistency between teachers' expressed beliefs and the teaching methods they use (Sharp & Green, 1975;). Part of this inconsistency can be attributed to the fact that teachers do not always feel free to put their beliefs into practice because of constraints that they feel are imposed on them by administrators, parents, and the demands of standardized testing (Brown & Rose, 1995; Hitz & Wright, 1988). Insufficient professional training also may contribute to the observed inconsistency between teachers' expressed values and classroom practice, because teachers may not always have the skills and abilities they need to bring their beliefs to fruition. Apparently, knowing more about how teachers rate the importance of various developmental skills and abilities is crucial for several reasons. First, it helps researchers and policymakers consider how other factors affecting the early childhood classroom, such as administrative directives and assessment issues, either support or conflict with teachers' beliefs. Second, in that teachers tend to emphasize those skills and abilities that they consider important, knowing what those items are can provide us with valuable insights into teacher decision making. Third, policymakers and educators can highlight particular areas of teacher education and training programs, based on teachers' beliefs concerning the importance of various developmental outcomes. Finally, considering teachers' extensive clinical experience interacting with children on a daily basis, knowing which skills and abilities they see as important can help bring about valuable insights about children and child development (Zimiles, 1993). 

Student’s Readiness

In connection to the factors that lead to errors in counting of children, student’s readiness should be considered. Apparently, there are many factors that directly affect the learning capabilities of the students particularly in counting i.e. external factors (students background), individual differences, teaching methods, learning setting, and behaviour. Thus, the teacher should facilitate an appropriate teaching method that suits to the learning capabilities of the students. In providing a quality teaching method, the teacher should construct a very capable and appropriate lesson plan (see appendix for sample mathematics lesson plan). The term 'readiness in school' is used to describe a number of different understandings of what constitutes the ingredients necessary for a child to make a successful transition from preschool or other prior-to-school setting to the formal school environment. Initially it was regarded as a child characteristic (e.g. Ilg & Ames, 1969). Later, the role of environment in children's early learning became a focus of interest (Graue, 1993) with contemporary conceptions incorporating both views. Currently, the predominant view is that school readiness is an interaction of child characteristics and school capacity to be flexible in meeting the individual needs of children in their initial year(s) of formal schooling (May & Kundert, 1997; Peterson, 1994). Basically, preschool teachers are influential in determining the day-to-day experiences of children in the year(s) before formal schooling as well as in decision-making about whether a child should progress to school (Tanner & Galis, 1997). It is clear that many teachers believe maturation is crucial to the development of skills necessary for a successful transition to school, with many supporting delayed-entry for some and boys being more likely to be retained in preschool than girls (May & Kundert, 1997). Investigations of teacher views of skills considered to be important for successful transition to school have found an emphasis on language abilities, including listening skills, self-confidence and social skills, with academic skills having a relatively lower priority (Lewitt & Baker, 1995). Moreover, for preschooler, adults can nurture preschooler's positive self-esteem by helping them discover what they are good at doing. Part of a child's self esteem comes from feeling competent and skilled at something she or he enjoys. You can play a big role in helping children to be successful and feel good about themselves. A place to start is by creating opportunities for children to explore different objects, activities, and people. Early in life, children show personality traits and preferences for what they like and dislike. By planning learning opportunities with children's unique personality styles in mind, you nuture their positive feelings about themselves. In addition, children learn about the world in many different ways. One educator, Howard Gardner (1995), believes that children's ways of learning can be grouped into different categories. To help children discover their personal abilities and learning preferences, you can provide opportunities that cover the eight different types of learning. Some children have many interests and want to learn about a variety of things; other children are satisfied with one or two kinds of learning and want to focus mostly on them. All children are unique; what is important is that you help them to learn what they are good at, what they enjoy and what makes them feel good about themselves. Recognizing children's unique personality styles can help adults to better understand children and to plan activities that children can learn from and enjoy. Research shows that a child's emotional style, activity level and social nature are present during the first few months of life and are unlikely to change much over time. 

Synthesis

This world is a tremendously huge place. It is a fact that in your existence you will never identify all there is to recognize. But learning is the greatest gift you can give to yourself. Basically, by learning about the world around you, you’re giving yourself the chance to understand just how far we have come since the beginning of man. If it weren’t for learning, you wouldn’t speak or write, you wouldn’t be able to communicate through the use of language, you wouldn’t have the use of things like telephones, televisions, bicycles, cars, and any man-made invention that exists today. In connection to learning development, researches reveal that preschooling is one of the most important stages of brain development which is the considered factors in learning. There is more happening in colorful, wonderfully busy preschools than meets the eye. Fun, role playing, block building, finger painting, laughter, negotiating, singing and dancing are just a few of the types of activities you will see in good preschool programs. Basically, this simple program has a great impact to the learning process of the children. Children are developing the critical but important skills, which are the foundation for life. For the children, families and community it is very important to consider the quality childhood programs. A growing body of research indicates that children who attend high quality early childhood programs benefit socially, emotionally and cognitively. Research shows that children enrolled in good preschool programs tend to have a positive transition into kindergarten, are more successful in later school years and show higher verbal and intellectual development than children who do not attend high quality programs (www.encylopedia.com). Moreover, these children (preschool learners) demonstrate high levels of social competence - self-esteem, social behavior, and motivation - a critical predicator of adult adaptation. Under the guidance of responsive and consistent teachers in a nurturing environment and communication with parents, children learn important social skills such as initiating and developing satisfying relationships with adults and peers; developing the ability to regulate emotions; communicating needs, desires and difficulties; and engaging in age appropriate problem solving; are all acquired. Socially competent preschool children are not only more likely to have success throughout their school years, but are also more likely to make positive contributions to our community. Social competence, along with intellectual and physical development is facilitated in high quality preschool programs by providing children with lots of opportunities to engage in play. Responsive teachers follow children's lead and provide them with developmentally appropriate opportunities to use their imagination, listen to stories, make choices, explore and understand materials and the environment, and exercise their bodies. Preschool programs experience maximum success when they support children and their families. High quality preschool programs make important contributions to our community by nurturing the unique strengths of each child thereby allowing children to reach their full potential. After successfully completing preschool we hope children will have an increased love for self and for learning, and be prepared for a promising future. Ultimately it’s up to the parent to decide what they believe is best for their child, but research shows that starting school at an early age will positively effect their learning process. 

International Banking Risks in China

Introduction
Back in 1970s, the implementation of various economic reforms was the focus of China. These reforms in turn resulted to a number of effects not only to the country itself but to other foreign countries as well. Before these reforms were implemented, China originally practices the command-type of economy where a significant portion of the Chinese economic outputs are regulated and distributed by the administration. The Chinese government used to be in charge of controlling market prices, establishing production objectives and allocating resources as well. While implementing this economic approach, China encountered several problems especially when the industrial period arrived. In order to cope with this period’s challenges, the country allocated large scale investments on its human and physical resources. Due to this movement, majority of the country’s industrial production was operated by state-owned enterprises (SOE); this however, prevented foreign investors and other private companies to operate in China. The purpose of letting the state own most of the economic resources is to prevent China from depending from foreign support, making the country self-sufficient. International trade was then limited to the importation of goods that was not available or produced in the country.

The constrictive Chinese policies however led to economic inactivity and inefficiency; there were limited profit incentives derived from both business and agricultural sectors. In addition, with this type of economic system, no competition was observed. As a result, progress was unattainable. This system also made the living standards in the country lower than other developing nations. The outcome of the traditional economic system then encouraged the Chinese government to come up with effective reforms that will augment the people’s living standards and the overall economic state. With the implementation of reforms, China’s major economic sectors naturally went through significant changes and development. While the reforms could have resulted to positive outcomes, certain risks are still likely to affect it and its neighboring countries. In this research, focus will be placed on the country’s financial sector, particularly on its foreign banking opportunities. The different risks involved in establishing foreign banks in the country as well as the ways on how to address them will also be highlighted in this discussion.

The Chinese Financial Sector
It was during the early 1980s when China first implemented reforms on its banking sector. This reform was focused mainly on the creation of four specialized banks separate from its central bank. The banks worked under monopolistic operations, concentrating the competition on acquiring more depositors. Eventually, bad loans started to affect the system, which resulted to quality deterioration of assets, excessive risk-taking and inflationary credit expansion (Cheng & Cheng, 1998). China then implemented new banking reforms in 1993. This time, the focus is on asset quality improvement, reestablishment of public confidence and development of genuine commercial banks. Though several analysts noted that the current Chinese banking status and general financial sector are still underdeveloped, the reforms had given the country several benefits like increased GDP and foreign direct investment. With these changes, international countries are very mush interested in putting up businesses like foreign banks in China. In addition, the country’s entry to the World Trade Organization (WTO) further increases the opportunity of foreign countries in accessing the large Chinese market. Nonetheless, analysts warn foreign investors of the different risks involved in establishing banks in the country.

Operational Risks
Among other types of risks, the operational aspect is perhaps the most complex as several factors (e.g. management, political, governance) are involved. One of the main operational risks that foreign investors can encounter in putting up banks in China is the problem on extensive administrative influence as well as the instability of regulations. As claimed by various foreign investors, the success of firms in China appears to be connected to government relations rather than to the market forces. Moreover, due to inadequate rules and regulation, problems such as investment misallocation, financial speculation as well as corruption had been rampant. International firms, particularly those in the west, usually encounter difficulty in operating in China due to lack of consistent laws. The improper enforcement of the contract as well as the lack of protection granted for intellectual properties are typical concerns as well (Morrison, 2005).
While banking entrepreneurs become attracted to the Chinese market economy, they must prepare themselves to various legal risks and issues. As pointed out earlier, the Chinese government has a significant authority over the country’s businesses. Policies and regulations applied in the Chinese business industry are subject to changes; hence, foreign entrepreneurs must be prepared to adjust. Considering that the country’s economic regulations and bureaucratic framework are still developing, changes are then inevitable (Humberg, 2003). The legal and regulatory aspects of the Chinese banking business are relatively unstable despite the reforms and developments conducted (Hu & Hope, 2005). Some legal practices in China are also different from the other common international practices. The issuance of a contract for instance, is a final matter in western cultures. However, contracts can change unexpectedly in China (Overby, 2000).

According to Hu and Hope (2005), the internal operations of Chinese banks are also problematic. The corporate governance of the country’s banks for example, is not very conducive for checks and balance systems. This problem is mainly rooted on the inadequacy of effective board members and independent directors. The banks’ culture on full disclosure should also be developed based on best and effective standards. This problem can greatly affect foreign bank operations since it is likely that its main workforce will be derived from the Chinese workforce pool, considering that it is less costly this way. If this will be done, employees and the board will expect usual corporate governance practices. Though foreign entrepreneurs can do some changes on its own banking governance once they start operating in China; the problem is whether these changes will be allowed or tolerated.

Interest, Credit and Liquidity Risks
China is relatively weak in terms of its credit or loan systems, considering its observed poor performance. The banking sector of the country is neither appropriately regulated nor properly managed. For instance, greater than 22% of the loans held by the state commercial banks are bad; young stock markets are also suffering the same state (Wu, 1998). Due to the poor state of China’s banking sector, Chinese reformers became even more hesitant to offer its banking sector to foreigners. In banking and loans, political connection is an important element; this in turn worsens the corruption within the country’s banking system. In addition, this practice widens the economic inefficiency of China as savings in general are not allocated based on the possibility of returns (Morrison, 2005). If no improvements will be done for China’s financial sector, instability is a possibility.

In order to resolve its problem on bad loans, China had decided to implement a new loan system (five-classification loan-grading system) that is based on international standards. Initially, China practices the four-classification system, which gravely defective. With this old system, endless speculations had been raised primarily on non-performing asset levels and inadequate provision of loans. While the new loaning system may benefit the country and resolve some of its financial issues, the effect of which is yet to be observed and evaluated. The possible success of this new approach is largely dependent on how Chinese regulators can effectively administer its execution (Hu & Hope, 2005). For new entrepreneurs, new systems that are not yet fully tested and guaranteed can be risky. It is then difficult to believe on the efficacy of this alternative unless concrete outcomes have already been obtained.

In terms of interest rate, regulations tightly control this banking aspect for foreign banks, making them less attractive for the market. In addition, the People’s Bank of China, the country’s central bank, is greatly protecting local banks particularly the four major banks developed during the initial reform for the financial sector. This then allows the country to cover about ninety-percent of the total lending activity (The Banker, 2001). The risk for liquidity is also a matter of concern for entrepreneurs planning on investing a banking business in China. Considering that the country had just gone through a major financial crisis during the latter part of the 1990s, liquidity in the country was greatly reduced, along with the decreasing GDP, falling export rate, declining retail price index and the slowing down supply of currency.

Market Risks
The market risks involved in foreign bank establishment in China is mainly caused by the country’s entry to the WTO. Before China joined the WTO, foreign banks that have renminbi (yuan) licenses were only supposed to lend renminbi from their deposits; access of these banks to interbank market was also prohibited, which greatly affects their capability to make loans. However, when China entered the WTO, the right to lend renminbi became limited to foreign banks that had been allowed to do this type of business. The provision of the licenses however, was only given to few selected banks. This in turn, makes the access of foreign banks to the Chinese market very restricted (The Banker, 2001).

The access to market is also greatly affected by China’s protection to its domestic firms. Local companies, including banks, had been complaining to the Chinese government and claimed that the policies implemented by the administration greatly favor foreign firms. For example, if a major foreign bank operates in China, most of the local companies offering similar financial services have no option but to close down. Eventually, as more foreign investors enter the country and operate within its banking industry, majority of the players will be foreigners. The Chinese administration is then concerned that if this will continue, more domestic industries will suffer (Chen, 1998). Hence, the government decided to control the entrance of the foreign firms in the country.

This in turn led the government to reduce the policies in favor of the foreign enterprises. In 1996 for example, the Chinese administration decided to cut down the value-added tax refund among foreign companies for exported goods from 17% to 9%. China has even planned to take out the privileges granted to foreign investors for importing capital equipment tax. This clearly implies that the country’s government has been more selective in accommodating foreign firms, which greatly limits foreign banks’ access to market (Chen, 1998).

Banking Risks in other Nations
Establishing a bank in other parts of the world such as those belonging in the European Union may be more advisable for some entrepreneurs. There are many reasons for this judgment. One of which is the fact that the European Union is a vast region of countries whose level of development varies. This means that EU offers business areas that are less developed than the other, giving better opportunities for foreign banks. Rules and regulations are likely to be more stabilized in some European regions as compared to the Chinese business setting. Tariffs or barriers to entry like taxes may also be lower in other European countries, making foreign entry less difficult. Most importantly, market diversity in EU is far larger than in China, making access to opportunities and market growth easier.

Nonetheless, it should also be considered that certain risks can also hinder the development of a foreign bank within EU. For instance, the presence of higher competition level is likely, considering that multiple local and foreign banks will be operating within the region. Moreover, though laws and regulations may be stable, differences in banking policies, operational practices and other relevant factors may make market access not as easy. From this standpoint, it becomes clear that establishing a bank in any foreign country has its advantages and downsides. This suggests that foreign entrepreneurs must be skilled in handling this possible business risks.

Means of Addressing the Risks
China and its banking sector have a lot to offer for foreign investors; however, the country and its administration must improve some of its banking aspects not only to make China more appealing to entrepreneurs but also to prevent business issues. One of this means would be the stabilization of its business laws and banking legislations. The country must have a definite ruling for both domestic and foreign banks in such a way that both will benefit from. While the Chinese government is protecting its local banking sector, it must also employ means that will make foreign bank investors less cautious. The restrictions should also be implemented at a reasonable level (Chen, 1998).

China has in fact, conducted several changes so as to be more open for foreign banks. For instance, it has attempted to improve its corporate governance by requiring and encouraging banks to introduce governing boards. Moreover, approved accounting firms are now used for auditing. Operational risks are also being handled by strengthening balance sheets; financial statement definitions are also slowly being accomplished based on international standards (Moreno, 2002).

The foreign investors themselves can apply certain means to safeguard their businesses from these recognized risks. One of the important strategies that firms should consider is to operate alongside a local business partner (Overby, 2000). This will help the firm adapt easily to the Chinese business environment. A local partner can also assist in learning the Chinese culture, practices, regulations and means of interaction. More importantly, a Chinese business partner can also help in achieving progress faster. Training the staff becomes even more important in foreign business ventures. The workforce must be supported fully particularly in adapting the business’ new concepts, standards and technologies. The management should ensure that the local staff is also well-adjusted to the new system so as to encourage them to contribute more for the business (Humberg, 2003).

In general, the investors can start off by analyzing the business environment they wish to invest on. It is important that business entrepreneurs are aware of the distinct features of each foreign setting; in this way, the investors will know how to address in the most effective way. If for example the foreign bank entrepreneur is from the West, establishing a bank in China will naturally make western and eastern difference apparent. As discussed by Ambler and Witzel (2003), Western and Chinese origins have distinct differences on various aspects like politics, philosophy, society and history. Hence, it is imperative that entrepreneurs understand their foreign prospects well. From this aspect, learning and adaptation are perhaps the two most important factors that should be present.

Conclusion
China is very appealing for entrepreneurs particularly because it offers low labor costs and a large market; similar factors have also encourages foreign banks to operate and establish branches in the country. Nonetheless, operational, credit, liquidity, interest and market risks are present, which can greatly affect foreign investors’ business goals. If banks will be established to other regions, the type and degree of risks may be different; however, risks in the banking business, irregardless of the environment, are omnipresent. For this reason, the foreign countries open to international trade as well as the investors themselves should have the appropriate qualities that will promote harmonious business relations. In conclusion, successful foreign business operations are not solely dependent on capital, connections and people but on the ability to learn, change and adapt as well.





References:
‘Knock Knock’, 2001, The Banker, May 1, viewed 4, January, 2006, .

Ambler, T & Witzel, M, 2003, Doing Business in China, Routledge, London.

Chen, R, 1998, ‘An analysis of China's economic development policies and prospects’, Business Economics, July, pp. 29-34.

Cheng, E & Cheng, Y, 1998, ‘Banking Reform and the Separation of Policy and Commercial Loans in China’, MOCT-MOST, no. 8, pp.5-21.

Hu, F & Hope, N, 2005, 'Can Foreign Entry Transform China’s Banking System?', SIEPR Policy Brief, November.

Humberg, C, 2003, ‘Successfully Moving In and Setting up Business in China’, TUV Rheinland World News, pp. 4-5, viewed 4, January, 2006, .

Moreno, R, 2002, ‘Reforming China’s Banking System’, FRBSF Economic Letter, no. 200-17, May 31.

Morrison, W, 2005, ‘China's Economic Conditions’, CRS Issue Brief for Congress, July 1.

Overby, S, 2000, ‘Taming the Dragon’, Inc.com, viewed 4, January, 2006 .

Wu, R, 1998, ‘Which Way for the Chinese Economy?’, World and I, vol. 13, no. 10, pp. 40+.

[Essay] School Leadership

1. Leadership

1.1.Definition of Leadership

Scholars have always been trying to define what leadership and effective leadership is (and subsequently - how to achieve effective leadership). Already in 600BC, the Chinese Tao Te King defined leadership:

"Most leaders are despised, some leaders are feared, few leaders are praised, and the rare leader is never noticed" (cited in Andriessen & Drenth 1984).

In fact, his definition relates or may even distinguish between leaders and appointed managers. The phenomenon of leadership was described in many historical manuscripts. Actually, aside from the Bible, the Iliad and Odyssey also presented some colorful definitions of leadership and differentiate leaders in different cases.

Many works have been written since, in which scholars suggested what is leadership and how it can be defined (Bass, 1990). Rigorous exploration of these works reveals severe difficulty in finding agreement among them. This emerges in part from the difficulty in defining the term leadership. There are several related frameworks in the literature, some of which are partially overlapping and thus one can identify many types of definitions, not necessarily similar.

It appears from these definitions that leadership is associated with the relationship between a person and other people - a group. Cattell (1953) defined a leader as a person who produces group scintilla which is different from that which would have been if that person had not been presented. Kotter (1988) defines leadership as a process of motivating group(s) in certain direction through noncoercive process. Stogdill (1974, p. 81) provides a more comprehensive definition:

"The leader is characteriszed by a strong drive for responsibility and task completion, vigor and persistence in pursuit of goals, venturesomeness and originality in problem solving, drive to exercise initiative in social situation, self-confidence and a sense of personal identity, willingness to accept consequences of decision and action, readiness to absorb interpersonal stress, willingness to tolerate frustration and delay, ability to influence other persons' behavior, and capacity to structure social interaction systems to purpose at hand"

This long and comprehensive definition includes mainly skills and traits which characterize leaders, but does not recognise the importance of the role of goal direction and exerting influences on the group and its members. A more operative definition is that of Hersey & Blanchard (1972):

“Leadership is a process of interpersonal influence from a person unto other(s) in the direction of a goal, where the other(s) subsequently act of own will in the direction sought for by the leader.”

Looking at the above and many other definitions, one can realise that here is no common agreement in the literature for a definition of leadership (Yukl, 1994). Bryman (1986) provide various samples, and the disparity among them is striking. Some of the disparity relates to the component `having a goal or target' which appears in only in part of them (e.g. Ruach & Behling 1984) but not in others (e.g. Hollander, 1978). Bryman (1986) also identified the difference between the study of leadership in organizations and study of leadership by itself.

Apparently, Yukl (1994) also explored some of the definitions. In the study of Yukl (1994), the term `leader' and emphasises the disparity among the scholars who try to define it. The common idea that Yukl suggests is "A person who influence group members". This definition seems to be too wide and is lacking in focus. An additional growth in leadership study emerged with Bass's ideas of transactional versus transformational leadership (Bass & Avolio, 1994). From this, it is very apparent that there are various different definitions of leadership, but there is common understanding of its nature.

While there are many definitions for leadership, a true leader is one that does not cause his or her constituents to become dependent upon them, but rather independent enough to function in the absence of the leader. True enough, leadership is art. People and individuals are influence by the goals of aspirations of the appointed leader. Remember too, that the goals and aspirations must be real and attainable in order for the people who are being led to buy into them and strive towards them as well. Special emphasis is placed on the factor of importance. Again, if individuals do not see where they fit into the equation, they may question the authority of the leader and abandon his or her ideas of beliefs. Bear in mind also, that individuals or masses may be led by a leader, however, when dealing with groups, the work is much more demanding as the program must be sold to various personalities within the group.

1.2.Definition of School Leadership

From the previous issues about defining leadership, it shows that leadership is not an easy concept to define. Actually, Leithwood, Jantzi, & Steinbach (1999) stressed that the concept of leadership has no agreed definition. It was also supported by Yukl (2002, pp.4–5) as he argued that

“the definition of leadership is arbitrary and very subjective. Some definitions are more useful than others, but there is no ‘correct’ definition.”

Aside from this, Cuban (1988, p.190) also raised the issue as he says

“there are more than 350 definitions of leadership but no clear and unequivocal understanding as to what distinguishes leaders from non-leaders”.

But despite of this lacking definition pertaining to what leadership is, a lot of people and experts (e.g. Halawah, 2005; Sammons, Hillman, & Mortimore, 1995; and Lacina & Hannibal, 2008) argued that leadership is significant to school effectiveness and improvement (Stoll & Fink 1996, Hallinger and Heck 1999). For this reason, the need for the establishment of at least a working definition of school leadership is necessary. Thus, Chance & Chance (2002) define school leadership as

“as the process of enlisting and guiding the talents and energies of teachers, pupils, and parents toward achieving common educational aims.”

An educator has a responsibility to provide guidance and share the knowledge to the students. And to become a head of all the faculty members is such a great responsibility, what more if an ordinary teacher became the leader of the entire school, such a burden. The introduction of the clear standards of school leadership promotes the core values and maturity on their role and responsibility. It is true that it’s hard to find a perfect leader and guide everyone, including teachers and students. With proper consulting, mentoring, training and measuring all the responsibilities, a leader cannot be perfect but an effective person who can lead the entire educational institution in better future.

The approach on school leadership is accepted as an effective tool for managing in environments of overload and fragmentation especially in school systems. The key aspects of leadership should revolve in four categories. There should be a moral purpose when there is a recognized leadership; the leadership should be part of an adaptive work; the leadership should establish the unique roles and responsibilities; and the leadership should know their domain or the centralization of their action (Huber, 2007).

Aside from the proper school system, the call for the effective school leadership has also captured the ethics of the schools and approach to teach students well. For instance, the moral leadership approach in schools is an effective approach that is used as a key of the leaders whenever they are trying to influence the entire school organizations. Apparently, the transformational leadership promises the focus on morality which is good for the education. This provides the social systems, management and improvement of education with the criteria that passed through the social and personal morals such as honesty, courage, respect and broad mindedness (Rudell, 2008).

1.3.School Leadership Patterns

Leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals toward a common goal. Aside from that leadership is also a process which implies that a leader must continuously grow and develop both in character and competence. In the same way, an educational leader or reformer must possess such qualities as a leader.

Traditionally, the task of schooling has been to transform children into full functioning adults capable of succeeding in the culture of the time. Educational reformers from antiquity to the present have attempted to prod educational institutions to modify and change fundamental tasks and processes. Changing a subject matter can be difficult, however, reforming the infrastructure of schooling and the dynamics of those human interactions is monumental. This is the challenge and focus of the contemporary educational leader. Thus, school leadership is more than a position or role. School leadership at its core is fundamentally a dynamic, chaotic, human relational process. The leader, follower and context are the three structural dimensions involved in this process. How each individual engages in that process; perceives or defines each of the dimensions of the process can significantly shape the personal and collective metaphors that guide individual and collective action (Richford, 2001). Hence, movement is essential in school leadership in order to bring about educational changes.

Aligning the people in school is one of the basic attribute of an effective school leadership. Along with that is the proper management of the people in school in moving toward their objectives. School leadership can be described as the trait of a person to set strategies made especially for school improvements. The changes that an individual may produce are another beneficial factor of his leadership to cope the changing environment. On the other hand, the management is the process of the duties of the leaders. Through the appropriate management, the problems and areas need for development or improvement can be determined.

In school, effective leaders are also community builders and can influence others to be a leader in their own way (Victor, 2009). There should be a moral purpose when there is a recognized leadership; the leadership should be part of an adaptive work; the leadership should establish the unique roles and responsibilities; and the leadership should know their domain or the centralization of their action (Huber, 2007). Most of the private schools received the lack of funding and the proper management of the educators (Day, 2007). Based on the different challenges in the education, a leader should promote the effectiveness in the education in delivering most of the quality attributes. Through the roots of the personality of the leaders, the effective approach in managing the schools will come out in them naturally (Mai, 2004).

In addition to being concerned with the school leadership, Sergiovanni (1992) also questioned whether schools should be thought of as formal or informal organizations. If formal, then formal leadership roles would be designated to particular people by virtue of their rank in the organization. With this style, superintendents would be expected to know more and lead more. If informal, then working together to discuss goals, purposes and teaching methodologies (collegiality) would take precedence over formal leadership. Sergiovanni favored the informal position and felt that it led to a sense of the school as a community (p. 43).

Barth (1988) proposed the idea of the school as a community, encompassing all school staff, students and parents. His community of leaders is explained:

“Teachers harbor extraordinary capabilities and their leadership is a major untapped resource for improving our nation’s schools . . . my vision for a school is a place whose very mission is to ensure that students, parents, teachers and principals all become school leaders in some ways and at some times (p. 131).”

The concept of the school as a community of leaders is further developed by Barth (1990), as he suggests that principals engage in activities such as articulating goals, empowering and entrusting individuals, involving people in decision-making, taking risks, sharing responsibility for failure, and sharing as well the joy of success. Barth believes that such “leadership would promote professional conversation among adults, peer coaching among students, and staff cooperation on projects such as planning and designing curricula (p. 31).”

Some believe, however, that it is inappropriate to develop community leaders within an educational institution. Zhao (2010) argues that one is unlikely to be successful in

“collaboratively defining the essential purpose of teaching and learning and then empowering the entire school community to become organized and focused” (p. 13).

Indeed, current research concerning site-based management confirms the importance of leadership from the top. Still, Gardner & Laskin, (1995) believes that the function of leadership is to alter the minds of the members of a community. His cognitive approach claims that leadership activity occurs in the mind of the leader, in the minds of the followers, and in the interactions and transactions between and among those minds.

Barth (1997) believes “contagious energy” is created through collegiality. He further states,

“the nature and quality of adult relationships within a school or a school system have more to do with the school’s quality and accomplishments than any other factor” (p. 42).

1.4.New Trends in School Leadership

Leadership is the more relationship-based, values-laden, developmental aspect of the work we do inn organization. Bennis & Nanus (1985) tritely suggest that management is doing things right and leadership is doing the right things.

By the late 1970’s theories were beginning to emphasize leadership that placed instruction and learning at the core of effective education. Goodlad (1978) refers to instructional leadership as the beginning of the third era in leadership theory. He embraces this concept as a return to “first principles” (p.324) and states that the work of those who lead in the formulation of educational policy “is to maintain, justify and articulate sound, comprehensible programs of instruction for children and for youth” (p.326).

Research based upon Goodlad’s ideas confirm that in more effective schools, principals led in the establishment of atmosphere conducive to learning, and they were perceived to have more impact on educational decision-making than principals in less effective schools. Hallinger, Beckman & Davis (1989) report that effective principals “influence student learning by developing a clear mission that provides an instructional focus for teachers throughout the school.it creates a school environment that focuses on and facilitates student learning”(p.9).

With regards to the new trends of school leadership, understanding of the principalship has become even more aligned with our concept of teacher leadership. Sergiovanni (1999) put forth the concept of moral leadership based on the assumption of schools as professional learning communities and that communities are defined by their efforts toward making shared values explicit and these shared values become sources for informal norms that govern behavior. Teachers, as community members, respond to their duties and obligations in keeping with the school community informal norm system. These connections allow principals to rely less on external control. The result is that teachers become increasingly self–managed.

Unlike the leaders of the past, many of today’s principals are “not lone rangers who depend on charisma and individual genius to transform schools” (Lieberman & Miller, 1999; p. 40). The principals who are engaged in real school change recognize that every teacher can be leader in partnership with the principal and the roles of teaching, learning, and leading can be played by everyone in an organization that is described by Lieberman & Miller (1999) as “leadership dense” (p.46). Successful principals recall the hopes, dreams, frustrations and aspirations they had when they were teacher leaders and capitalize on the teacher leadership in their schools to accomplish their goals.

Although progress has been made in recognizing that the principal’s job is about creating a culture in which principals and teachers lead together, our experience is that this perspective is not widespread. As we work with principals in the 2000s, the leadership conversations have changed but potential principals still expect the graduate school or professional development providers to prepare them in the technical responsibilities. Often, these future leaders believe their success rests only in managing the facility, building the budget or creating the master schedule. Our approach to their development, however, is focused on a more complex form of leadership that emphasizes values and beliefs, shared vision, school culture, teacher leadership, professional learning communities, and transforming schools to focus on teaching and learning. As important as mastery of the technical and managerial skills may be, principals must reconsider how to use the technical tasks of the work of schooling to their advantage in partnering with the school’s teachers leaders in transforming the teaching and learning that occurs.

New standard for school leaders support those new relationships between principals and teacher leaders. Focus is placed on both student learning and shared leadership in the recently developed multi-state performance assessment designed for licensure of school principals. Organized by the Council of Chief State School Officers, the Interstate School Leaders Licensure Consortium (ISLLC) was formed for the purpose of raising quality in educational leadership and influencing certification through principal candidate assessment (Stolp, S. & Smith, 1994). The first two of the six standards support the importance of the school administrator’s work is in building a school culture that promotes teacher leaders (Stolp, S. & Smith, 1994).

Standard 1: A school administrator is school leader who promotes the success of all students by facilitating the development, articulation, implementation, and stewardship of a vision of learning that is shared and supported by the school community.

Standard 2: A school administrator is an educational leader who promotes the success of all students by advocating, nurturing, and sustaining a school culture and instructional program conductive to student learning and staff professional growth. (Stolp, S. & Smith, 1994)

The proliferation of professional development schools has also impacted the expectations for principals. Direct collaboration of teachers with university personnel in action research that informs teacher practice requires new roles and shifts in power. Bolman & Heller, (1995), suggests that changes in principal leadership are necessarily linked to changes in teacher leadership in the professional development school settings.

Another role for the principal is to serve as a buffer for obstacles from outside the school. These may come from district staff, parents, community members or other external forces like special interest groups. The principals of successful schools negotiate with the larger system (Sowa & De La Vega, 2008) and develop liaisons with powerful individuals to diminish these barriers for the school. Teachers may not even be aware of the efforts principals make to shield them from unpleasant information that could lessen the teachers’ enthusiasm to lead.

Finally, a recent study (Mooij & Smeets, 2001) suggests that the actions of principals to provide supportive conditions is a key factor in encouraging shared leadership and nurturing teacher leadership roles within professional communities. The principal supports teacher leadership by actively listening to teachers, assuming a responsibility for knowing about teaching and learning in the school and being consistent in the follow-through on shared decisions made in the school.

1.5.School Leadership in the UAE

In UAE, the interest to spend on education or schools has reduced in this past decades (ILO, 2002). This has been made evident by the low educational spending obtained within UAE. Compared to the industrialized nations, UAE had demonstrated a significant drop in individual spending for education; the enrolment rate in the region is then directly affected seeking for effective school leadership (Sowa & De La Vega, 2008). However, in the case of the UAE, enrolment rate for higher education has also been dropping continuously. In turn, this makes the need for effective school leadership even more severe.

In UAE, there are several important aspects raised in relation to the interest of students to education, dropout rate and graduate population (Sowa & De La Vega, 2008). Enhancement of the role played by school leaders is also weak which is also contributing to the declining interest of student in education. The basic education in the country extends for 9 years with three years of secondary education. Institutes that offer higher education include Bahrain Training Institute, Gulf Hospitality and Tourism College, Bahrain University, College of Health Sciences, Arab Gulf University and other special institutions like the Bahrain Institute for Banking & Finance. Statistic reports showed that enrolment rate (50%) and the number of graduates (38%) in the country actually increased (ILO 2002).

However, certain problems had been identified in the country’s secondary education level. In particular, a high level of dropout rate has been observed; statistic reports identified a significant difference between the number of enrollees in the primary, secondary and intermediate schools (Henson & Chambers, 2003). As the students progress in educational level, the number of enrollees lessens. Results also indicated that for every ten students who enroll for their first year in primary education, less than four pupils will enroll for secondary education. This observed trend led school administrations to question the ability of the schools to retain the students (ILO Interdisciplinary Mission 2002).

The interest of the students to education is not only about leadership in schools; the population of the enrollees in terms of gender also aggravates the issue. Local census showed that more females are more motivated to study as compared to males. For example, in the science courses, male students only make up 36% of the total population while 64% are females. In the literary division, only 33.5% are males . Females are only slightly higher than the male population in the primary education level; however, female population doubles in the secondary level and becomes 30% more than the male students in the intermediate level. There is also a distinct discrimination in the courses offered for both genders; for example, industrial education is only open to male students while advertising and textile are only offered to female students (ILO, 2002).

Two-thirds of the secondary and post-secondary education enrollees are made up of female students; however, the females only make up 25.78% of the total labor force in UAE. These results clearly showed that while there are more female graduates than males, their skills are not utilized for local employment. The limited education courses accessible to male and female students also make it difficult for employers to find the needed employees for their operation (ILO, 2002). From the gathered findings, UAE’s educational setting is comprised of abnormally high dropout rate especially in the secondary level; eventually, the out of school population contributes to the country’s unemployment rate. There is also an apparent school leadership problem among male students in UAE. Moreover, although the female population displayed a high performance level, the local labor markets do not offer matching job opportunities.

The quality and promotion of education, specifically the form of teaching and encouragement in the UAE has something to do about school leadership. According to Al Sulayti (1999), students studying in the Gulf region are more accustomed to the traditional methods of teaching and memorization. For instance, in taking up English courses, students are trained in preparation for taking up the Preliminary English Test, a standardized English competency test for students at the intermediate level. During the duration of the semester, the students must be able to achieve the fourth level of English proficiency before the exams. This clearly illustrates that the Arabian method of teaching is patterned after the traditional high-stakes testing (Syed, 2003). This then deprive the students of the modern techniques for teaching like collaborative learning. This educational practice makes it even more difficult for student in UAE to obtain good local jobs and compete with foreign workers.

Usually, classroom instruction is conducted with a teacher facilitating the discussion; during the class, teachers may ask questions or give examinations to assess the level of comprehension of the students. In the traditional setting, the teachers are the only source of information; students on the other would just have to take note and memorize all these information. Skill level at this set up is greatly affected due to the students’ lack of involvement in the learning process. With the traditional learning process, students are not able to effectively apply what they have learned from real work situations. Traditional teaching process then lessens the potential of the students to be innovative, creative and analytical.

The quality of education among students is also affected by the inadequate IT knowledge and skill enhancement in the Arab region. Although computer systems are readily available, there is also a distinct lack of internet utilization in the students’ education process; this also makes the nationals less appealing as employees compared to other foreign workers. The inadequate exposure of most locals to internet use is largely attributable to some inefficient Arab policies (UNDAP, 2002).

For instance, online Arabic publications that could have been popularized through the internet are often controlled with certain decrees. This then limits Arab information from being accessible to the public. Another important is the cost of internet access in the region. As online services are provided in the UAE at considerably high prices, most people are not able to access this major development. This also prevents the use of information and communication technology (ICT) for knowledge expansion and better education (UNDAP, 2002).

2. Student Achievement

2.1. Definition of Student Achievement

In the current era, student achievement is one of the crucial factors in school development. According to Henson & Chambers, (2003), a school achievement refers to something that a student do achieved at school whether it is in class, in a laboratory, library or fieldwork which are normally defined as academic achievement. It also does include sports and music which are categorized as non-academic achievements. In addition, achievements upon extra-curricular activities at school can be also considered as school achievement.

In discussing student achievements, the context of student learning and performance are also tackled. Learning is very vital to individual development particularly to student’s achievement. It needs special consideration to different variables to make the learning experience become successful. Issues pertaining to individual differences should be considered. Intellectual capacity, expertise and knowledge pertaining to the profession of the learners must be given an attention. Thus, teachers need to be careful not only to approach in teaching but also to the overall learning outcome that will details the achievements of the students. Actually, the importance of school leadership takes form in the notion that learning is essential in order to obtain an entry-level qualification for paid work, and learning whilst in a job; while the importance of non-formal education can be stressed by the social common senses that it teaches to students. Lacina, & Hannibal, (2008) appears to support this notion, who said that the three major purposes of education are that it prepares a person for work, for citizenship and it enables him to have significant school achievement that reflects on intellectual growth and independence.

Accordingly the importance of education in assessing school achievements such as literacy and certain procedural skills, uncovering the content of various knowledge domains, inculcating certain values, perspectives, attitudes, and beliefs as well as developing the ability to independently learn and think effectively are emphasised (Ruddell, 2008). Although of course, this does not imply that all of these needs are often done effectively or are even proffered the attention they deserve.

The love for learning is so great that it should be associated with a way of life. With significant school achievements, it helps people to be more objective in their approach to life’s problems, more analytical in trying to understand them and more aware of the consequences that can arise when handling them (Thompson & Serra, 2005). School achievements and learning can help lead a fuller and richer life and to be more conscious of the economic and social environment.

Like the suggestion of Thompson & Serra (2005) that focused student achievement present a set of challenges. Through ratings for an individual course compared to the composite raring for all courses in the department, the minority range can be determined. The monitoring process is depends in the class standard of the educators assumption on how the students perform.

The work of the school is assessing student achievement and assessing the capabilities of each student. By monitoring process, the educators can clearly tell who met the requirement and the students that belonged to the minority range who did not met the expected proficiency will go for another series of practice. The students belonged in this group needs attention and support (Gleeson & Husbands, 2001). The guidance coming from the educators must prevail, and perhaps educators can introduce an easy way in writing by shifting into other process which the skill of a student suits to it.

The educators should orient their students in a simple approach that they will surely understand. Encourage the students to develop their skills into their own effort and find the right style to enhance their learning abilities. The educators should always lend their time to check the works of the students and give suggestions. The educator should respect the choice of the students and help them perform well with a group discussion. The teaching should not always goes in one direction, meaning, the social time of the students with their friends and classmates can endow the writing skill of the student.

2.2 Factors Affecting Student Achievement

Teaching different individuals is related to student achievement, thus the teaching methods of an instructor should consider various factors affecting learning and student achievements. It also should conform to the type or race of the student (Ovando & Collier, 1998). Meaning, the instructor should be flexible in teaching depending on what the student are aiming to learn in order to have a meaningful achievement. Moreover, one of the factors that the instructor should understand is to learn the different methods and strategies in teaching considering that it is crucial to one’s achievement.

For example in a case study presented by Fuchs, Fuchs, Mathes & Simmons, (1997), a school is typically made of individuals of multiple linguistic, ethnic and economic backgrounds. Fuchs, et. al. (1997) identified that the class consists of five Arabic students with low socio-Economic Status, two non Arabic students with low socio-Economic Status, four middle class Arabic students, two middle class non Arabic students, two high socio-Economic Status Arabic students and two high socio-Economic Status non Arabic students. With all of these elements, the question arises as to how a teacher can reach each of these students individually while teaching the entire class on a daily basis? While this scenario may sound excessive, in reality, this is often case in some classrooms in Sydney. The problem then lies in the teacher's hands to focus attention on each student with their plethora of learning levels and styles.

The question arises as to what would happen to student achievement if teachers ignore the need to conform to Multiculturalism. This statement, while sounding contradictory within itself, is a condition that occurs throughout our educational system, and has detrimental impact on students of all backgrounds (Fuchs, et. al. 1997). For example, research shows that teachers who do not acknowledge learning differences tend to classify students as "teachable" or "difficult to teach". This mental schema has several negative outcomes (Alster, 1997).

Apart from Multiculturalism as affecting factors of students’ achievements, teachers who also fail in the attempt to build a classroom community will in turn classify students by their ability and will often negatively influence the achievement of those students. Considering this, many students fail to make adequate, if any, progress throughout school (Fuchs, Fuchs, Mathes & Simmons, 1997) and will develop a very low self-esteem with many dropping out of school during secondary education (Ovando & Collier, 1998).

Aside from this factor, factors such as student’s learning capacity, vices, time spent sleeping, stress, school teaching approach and leadership have a great effect students’ academic achievements (Lacina, & Hannibal, 2008). The school environment is the broader context of the school that allows for classroom instruction and student learning (Tunney, 1996). A transformation to a community should take place throughout the school wide environment by maximizing the number of positive interactions with students and parents. Teachers are capable of producing profound and positive changes in student behaviors and learning by effectively modeling the positive processes, skills, and attitudes that parents teach (Hindle, 1996).

Bringing members of a class together for certain activities engenders the feeling of belonging to a group and in turn establishes class spirit (Bergin, 1999). With this, students who feel that they belong to a group have power in decision-making and have freedom of choices (Tunney, 1996). The classroom community can be developed by a number of means. Students should develop a process of understanding, sharing, compassion and empathy. The classroom should be referred to by the teacher as "our classroom" rather than "my classroom". The development of a community is moving from doing things to students to doing things for students (Tunney, 1996).

2.3 School Leadership and Student Achievement

Ensuring the effectiveness of the teaching-learning process can be cumbersome if one of the important things have not done and evaluated properly. The educational trend nowadays, composed of concept of evaluation which aims on identifying which part of the education system should be enhanced and which part needs changes. School leadership and management is twice as important as the evaluation and assessment of the students. It has been part of the tradition that evaluation of school leadership has been accounted to be a critical element of the teaching and learning process (Mentkowski, 2004) method. To be able to make sure that the teaching-learning approach is able to attain the educational objective, it is essential that the school leadership and management has been properly assessed and evaluated.

In the case study presented by Theall, (2002), he shows that evaluation of different educational activities, programmes and other educationally relevant operations involving school leadership has something to do with the manner of familiarizing the purpose of the education is and how this can be attained. Theall, (2002) justifies that school leadership includes the judgment regarding the effectiveness of the current practices in school. Further, it includes gathering information which is done in the assessment stage and making judgments or decisions based on the data collated (evaluation stage), to identify how well school actions involving school leadership is performing. It can be said that the principal purpose of school leadership is to plan enhancement to the current practices that will enhance the achievement of the students and other people in school. Such enhancements might involve changes to the document of school curriculum and or the provision of resources for the teaching-learning process (Theall, 2002).

Education is one of the necessities and the rights of each individual in the world. In school, teachers and school administrators’ leadership have the responsibility of providing effective education to students, as this serves as their development. Through knowledge and education, students can become involved to different activities, which do not only develop their mental abilities, but their personalities as well. School leadership and their efforts towards promotion of education play significant effect to the learning capabilities and student achievements. With efficient school leadership efforts, it creates way and strategies to attain success in teaching-learning process. According to Khan (2011), methods in teaching, capabilities of the learner and the learning environment should be considered in order to attain success.

Khan (2011) reports that education is the knowledge of putting a person’s potential to maximum use, and is important for training the human mind, which makes man a right thinker and it tells one to think and make decisions. Without education, man is as though a closed room, but through education, he finds himself in a room with all its windows open towards outside world (Khan 2011). With this importance, it is always better to provide some changes and improvement to the system of education. School improvement programs must be planned effectively and implemented efficiently to help the development of the curriculum, for the enhancement of the learning process of each student.

2.2.Student Achievement in the UAE

The government in UAE had done several steps and procedures in order to improve their education by enhancing student achievement.. So as to improve the skills of the students and prepare them for the demands of the labor markets, major changes had been introduced and enforced through new education policies.

For primary education, policies that improves student achievement include the implementation of a generalized class-teacher system, employment of ICT in the teaching process, early teaching of the English language, provision of learning programs for gifted students and creation of better home-school relations. For the out of school youth, the local government had also enforced a policy where vocational programs will be provided for these children to prepare them for the requirements of the labor market (UNESCWA 2006 and Sowa & De La Vega, 2008). Society groups like teachers and students now have access to various training courses for advance learning that would improve their technical knowledge and skills. The structure of UAE’s ministry of Education has also been modified in order to ensure that the needs and requirements of the labor market are relayed to the education institutions. This modification also enabled the ministry to develop programs, visions and objectives that can help prepare future job applicants in securing local work opportunities (Ministry of Education 2003).

The developments in UAE’s school setting had also been subjected to a continuous and automated evaluation system, making the preparation and analysis of education statistic report easier and more accurate (Sowa & De La Vega, 2008). According to Sowa & De La Vega, (2008) several developmental project had also been approved by the local administration to improve the learning and educational background of the Bahrainis. These projects include the utilization of a curriculum that teaches personal, health and social life skills, the use of a commercial and industrial curriculum and the employment of an English-guided reading program (Ministry of Education 2003).

The development and implementation of the curriculum for life skills aim to integrate the learning for life perspective; this will help in achieving educational goals that are relevant the students’ health, existence and relation with the society. This development project aims to establish a balance between the knowledge students learn from school and real life application (Sowa & De La Vega, 2008). This project will then directly address the students’ need to be updated with the latest economical, political, social and technological developments. The development of the commercial and industrial curriculum also aims to enhance the skills of the Bahraini students and prepare them for the labor market (Ministry of Education 2003).

The commercial curriculum for instance is directed on the development of vocational education so as to help students overcome rapid knowledge and technological changes (Sowa & De La Vega, 2008). Moreover, the learning of the English language has been more emphasized in this curriculum development. Some of the important features of this curriculum include the establishment of simulation halls where students can practice actual labor market work, the integration of the internet, development and implementation of new improved training programs for teachers, modification of the study plan for commercial education to coordinate with the demands of the labor market and introduction of new courses that are in demand to the current work sector (Ministry of Education 2003).

Similar developments had been done in the curriculum for industrial education and improvement of student’s achievement. In order to enhance the actual work experience and student’s achievement, the study plan for industrial education now include more hours for field training (Sowa & De La Vega, 2008). New courses that meet the needs of the labor market are also introduced; the courses also give more focus on teaching life skills, safety health and vocational abilities. In order to shape the students’ project management capabilities, small feasibility projects that teach project planning, resource budgeting and workforce management are integrated (Sowa & De La Vega, 2008). Aside from technical skills, these projects also help student develop important values like self-confidence, independence and respect, which they could use in actual work settings (Ministry of Education 2003). Aside from the implementation of various educational policies, the local government of UAE has also been active in promoting the employment of nationals in local work opportunities.

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