Women’s Career Progression

Introduction

Because of the powerful influence of globalization, the discrimination between the treatment of men and women were set aside in either education or in workplace. Both men and women are contributing towards the achievement of total development. The increasing number of challenges present in the workforce is slowly diminishing because of the effective training and natural skill of people. However, the recognition of different characteristics and working capabilities between men and women are still criticized by most of organizations.

Background and Problem Statement

In terms of career opportunities, men and women can now freely choose their areas of expertise. In every business sectors, it is very obvious that men and women are actively participating to aid the organization in achieving its goals. In the financial sector such as the banking industry and any kinds of financial institutions, the competition between the two sexes can be determined. This is because for the reason that both men and women can access equal opportunities but there is a tricky idea that the countries in Middle East use to deliver. Women in Middle Eastern schools excel more in school but when it comes in workplace, men are the one who holds the top positions. In spite of the similarities in culture, there is an underpinning idea regarding the differences of men and women in terms of career progression.

Research Aim and Objectives

The main aim of the study is to identify the reasons behind the career progression of women in workplace. In order to manage all the ideas with a great fashion, there are three objectives that should have to satisfy. First is to compare the similarities and differences of career opportunities, as well as the progress, of women between Kuwait and Dubai. Second is to demonstrate the applied techniques in improving the women’s performance in financial sector. And third is to recognize the reasons that block the continuous progress of women.

Literature Review

There are many recognizable issues in relation to the career progression of women, particularly in Middle East. Broadly speaking, it is identified that disengagement or the breaks in the career of the women slows the progression. In accountancy level, the progress of individual is sought after and women often receive various disadvantages because of other opportunities like birth giving (Buckley and Martin, 2009). The gender role is also discovered and been associated with career progression and job satisfaction. In between the personal attributes and job requirements, females are assumed not to possess the suitable traits, in which expected to witness among the males such as having the strong motivation and competence (Kirchmeyer, 1999). It is clear that career progression fosters success even in a complex business environment. However, there are still workplaces wherein women receive discrimination that damages the career progression and future opportunities. Moreover, many women are reluctant in committing in a flexible working situation which is opposed on the idea of the leaders in the corporate world (Hudson, 2009). Corporate leaders understand that women should take initiative and be open to all the opportunities that might meet them during the height of their career, which will lead them to their progression. The transformation of an individual is not only relies on the ability of the person but also in his openness. Women, apparently, used to undermine the authority particularly in organizations accustomed to a stereotypical male leadership style, which can again create an impression on the leaders, either good or bad. However, within the workplace, women in their professional career path seem to display a sense of responsibility which can be used as their ultimate key towards career progression. The amount of responsibility and commitment women give to organization can be the ace of the organization to keep them and help to improve. The leaders, on the other hand, should view the level of discrimination within the workplace that might draw an impact towards the role being played by women (YouGov Siraj, 2007).

Methodology

In the investigation of the study, the suggested method that can be effectively applied is the use of comparative case studies. The setting of the case studies should be on the said participating countries namely Kuwait and Dubai. The use of comparative case studies can bring home various advantages such as having the easy view or access on the areas of workplace within Kuwait and Dubai. Another is to have the opportunity to discover the literature gaps and draw conclusions because of the cases presented in the country’s respective workplaces particularly within the financial sector.

References:

Buckley, S., & Martin, R., (2009) “Women in the City”, The Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales, Accessed 18 June 2010, from http://www.icaew.com/index.cfm/route/168893/icaew_ga/Home/Press_and_policy/Public_policy/ICAEW_s_first_written_submission_on_Women_in_the_City/pdf

Hudson, V., (2009) “Equality: Women in Financial Services”, The Association of Chartered Certified Accountants, Accessed 18 June 2010, from http://www.accaglobal.com/pubs/about/public_affairs/unit/global_briefings/equality.pdf

Kirchmeyer, C., (1999) “Women’s vs. Men’s Managerial Careers: Is This a Case of Comparing Apples and Oranges?”, Academy of Management Proceedings, Accessed 18 June 2010, from http://www.lbl.gov/BLI/BLI_Library/assets/articles/CD/CD_WOMT_Women%27s_vs_Men%27s_Managerial_Careers.pdf

YouGov Siraj, (2007) “The Rising Ranks of Women in the Middle East Workplace”, Accessed 18 June 2010, from http://img.bayt.com/app/sections/career_resources/research/women-in-the-middle-east-workplace-v2.pdf

How Does Employment Equity Apply to Women in Management: Case of Tanzanian Organization

Introduction

In the issue of globalization and development, most of the countries are looking for the competitive people that can demonstrate the advantages. It only means that effective people should be part of an organization in order to stabilize the business’s effectiveness whether in manufacturing industry or service industry. Although most of developed countries are aware about the contribution of women, still many countries that are usually under the category of developing countries are in reluctance about the rights and contribution of women in terms of human capital.

Background and Problem Statement

Tanzanian government ratified in 1987 the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) that provides the International standards for the protection and promotion of the equality of women in civil, cultural, economic, political and social life (WIC, 2003). Within this context Tanzanian government provides the utmost effort in giving value for the women in terms of their participation in the community, development, and employment. The commitment of the government in highlighting the importance of women and their contribution leads to their corporate proficiency in various organizations. But in the true nature of management within the country, how does the so-called employment applied in women?

Research Aim and Objectives

The aim of the study is to detail the application of the Employment Equity or Equality among the groups of women within the management of a Tanzanian Organization. In order to lock the attention of the study in its aim, there are four core objectives supporting the purpose of the study. As a guide of the study in achieving its goals, the objectives are enumerated as follows:

(1) To understand the principles behind the employment equity provided for women

(2) To recognize the efforts or programs settled by the government to bring the power and right to women

(3) To determine the extent of provided opportunities for women in supporting their socio-economic status

(4) To measure the impact of employment equity in women, in Tanzanian Organizations, and in the entire country

Research Questions

In the continuation of the study in the investigation of employment equity in Tanzania, there are three questions that can serve as the engine of the study in targeting the objectives. These questions are included in the applied method procedure of the study which is expected to deliver the various aspects in employment equity of women.

(1) What is the importance of employment equity in both sexes, in the society, and in the national economy?

(2) What are the affected areas of employment equity in terms of the macro-economic development of women in Tanzania?

(3) What are the recognized challenges and benefits in implementing employment equity in the organizations?

Literature Review

Employment equity is part of the gender equity that usually focuses on the well-being of women and their families, through the fairness at work and/or good business practices (HMC, 2010). With the help of equity, women can achieve the advantages in terms of political and economic intervention. The efforts of Tanzanian government highlight the four critical areas such as enhancing the women’s legal capacity; political rights and decision making; economic empowerment against poverty; and accessibility in education, training and employment (WIC, 2003). Through the application of employment equity among the organizations, there are measurements that can emphasize to remove the discrimination coming from the workplace. Organizations are expected to encourage the employment through the positive action plans for women (UBC, 2008). Women is believed to fill the half of the workforce and by that fact, management should support them in some degree (TBS, 2000). The problem in Tanzania is that there were so many women without husbands who are affected by the poverty because they are lacked in socio-economic support (Benjamin and Fancy, 1998).

Methodology

The suggested method in the study is the use of the comparative case studies that elaborates the application of Tanzanian Organizations regarding the provision of employment equity. Through reviewing the facts involved in the employment equity, the study can measure the various interventions included in an organization to emphasize the contribution of women.

Conclusion

For the last few decade, there are changes the elaborately developed to meet the key strategic needs of a country. The essential aspects are welfare, equity, anti-poverty, efficiency and empowerment. In the world dominated by men, it seems that all the women are lacking the said key aspects. The challenge in the gender mainstreaming is how to apply the practical terms and strategy regarding the concept of employment equity.

References:

Benjamin, J.A., & Fancy K., (1998) “The Gender Dimensions of Internal Displacement: Concept Paper and Annotated Bibliography”, Office of Emergency Programs, UNICEF, Accessed 24 May 2010, from http://www.forcedmigration.org/sphere/pdf/watsan/WCRWC/unicef_idpgender_1998.pdf

HMC, (2010) “Towards Pay and Employment Equity: A Self-Assessment and Monitoring Tool”, Human Rights Commission, Accessed 24 May 2010, from http://live.isitesoftware.co.nz/neon/documents/Final%20Pay%20Equity%20report.pdf

TBS, (2000) “Employment Equity for Women…still matters”, The Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat (TBS), Accessed 24 May 2010, from http://dsp-psd.pwgsc.gc.ca/Collection/BT43-101-2000E.pdf

UBC, (2008) “Frequently Asked Questions Employment Equity and Census Questionnaire”, (UBC) University of British Columbia, Accessed 24 May 2010, from http://www.equity.ubc.ca/assets/pdf/publications/brochures/equity_census_faqs.pdf

WIC, (2003) “Ministry of Community Development, Gender and Children – Gender Briefing Report”, Women’s Information Centre (WIC), Accessed 24 May 2010, from http://www.mcdgc.go.tz/reports/gender_briefing_report.pdf

Women and the Managerial Position: on Equal Opportunities Employment

Some people argue that race is more fundamental to identity than sex and therefore is the primary identifying characteristic and that may be so. Nevertheless, most people find it essential to determine immediately the sex of another person with whom they interact. On the rare occasion when sexual identity is ambiguous or, even worse, in a case of mistaken identity, we are uncomfortable and embarrassed (Nielsen 1978). Men in our society are perceived first as jobholders, second as husbands and fathers; women, no matter what their status as jobholder, will be perceived first as homemakers, second as workers. Many books and articles have been written, are being written, and will no doubt continue to be written about the problems faced by women entering traditionally and historically male-dominated work organizations. Many others, although perhaps fewer, concern themselves with the problems that managers, presumably males, face in managing the army of new women workers entering the labor market.

The competitive global enterprise today encompasses every facet that trade and business covers. From men managers to the potentials of women managers, the diverse corporate ladder is a battle among the sexes. Hence, this paper aims to discuss the reason behind why women rarely occupy a senior managerial position. It also delves on the premise of equal opportunity employment policies with respect to the welfare of women in the corporate workplace.

Women and Sexism

Physically, males on the average are taller, heavier, more muscular, and more aggressive than females and also are more susceptible to illness. After adolescence, males excel in quantitative and visual spatial ability. Females have always been widely believed to excel in verbal ability and verbal creativity, but recent studies suggest the differences are so small as to be meaningless (Hyde & Linn 1988). Also, very little difference has been found for abilities such as intelligence, creativity, or cognitive style. On personality characteristics such as love, sociability, nurturance, dependency, empathy, or emotionality, areas in which males and females are perceived to differ significantly, there is very little evidence that real differences exist (Maccoby & Jacklin 1974).

Discrimination in the organizational setting has been regarded in several studies as its focus of investigation. Majority of the existing literature have studied specific companies and organizations with the existence of prejudice, particularly those instigated by gender biases (Hultin & Szulkin 1999; Martell 1996; Broadbent, Hallock & Hendricks 1998; Larwood & Trentham 1998; Guttierez, Loucopoulus & Payur 2002). It is among the most basic and simplest reason on why women do not occupy much managerial positions in the business world. Sexism, as old as its ancient origin is still prevalent in the society – both conservative and some liberal states.

Basing it from the aforementioned research reports, it could be concluded that managerial occupations remain strongly gender segregated. This segregation of male and female roles has led to separate models for studying work, a "job model" for studying males and a "gender model" for studying females (Feldberg & Glenn 1979). The job model assumes that the job is central to the lives of male workers; it treats the job itself as the primary independent variable. Items like complexity, routineness, autonomy, and working conditions are used to explain performance on the job and job satisfaction, as well as off-the-job behavior, activities, and mental health for male workers.

Segregation in occupational situation is both horizontal and vertical (Rubbery and Fagan 1993). Horizontally, women are concentrated in specified and particular careers while they are vertically concentrated in lower-status works in particularly specified occupations. For instance, this practice is present in cases of functional managers such as majority of personnel, training, and industrial relations manager. Generally, it is supposed that occupational segregation is dependent on a particular segment of labor.

Further, relating on the study of Hultin and Szulkin (1999) gender discrimination is classified into three categories. These categories includes allocative, evaluative, and within-job discrimination. The first kind of discrimination refers to women facing restricted admission to attractive ranks inside a work organization either at the moment of entry or in terms of career progression within the company. On the other hand, evaluative discrimination subsists when jobs executed mostly by women are remunerated less than those jobs of equivalent value that are carried out largely by men. The worth of a job is weighed up by dissimilar characteristics of the work substance that are of significance in the wage-setting procedure, such as demands for credentials and dependability, but there have constantly been considerable and procedural difficulties inherent in the appraisal process. Moreover, within-job discrimination exists to the degree that women are compensated in a lesser amount than men in a given job. This type of prejudice is geared toward individuals and breeds gender gaps inside occupations in a specified organization. The majority of research performed in this field indicates to the fact that within-job discrimination is of partial significance when it comes to amplification of disparities between women and men. A well-established research result is that the gender gap reduces as work-related dissimilarities become finer. These conclusions are not unanticipated, nevertheless, since prejudice within jobs is against the law in most industrialized countries.

Some feminist analysts identified a classification present in some types of work depending on the gender and power of the employees who do the job. They refer it as a social construction in feminism (Phillips & Taylor 1980). This means that there is an actual presence of subconscious discrimination in the working environment of women. From the period of training up to the regularization within the company and the employer, skilled works are mostly expected among male. This assumption was predominantly due to the records of male apprenticeships that involves a significant duration of years. Aside from this, training and on-the-job experience are also included. Meanwhile, unskilled works are preconceived to exist in a typical woman employee. These are works that no longer need to be studied but they naturally occur and most women know how to do (such as cleaning, doing the laundry, and cooking).

As an example, men in Europe earn more than women because every labour market in the EU is gender segregated (Almond and Rubery 1998). There is a common notion from the nature and characteristics of the existing labour supplies and conditions that provide men and women to be assigned in totally diverse jobs. Generally, women are persuaded to work in part-time jobs due to some other responsibilities such as domestic and the like (Hunter et al. 1993). Hakim (1995) asserts that part-time works are expected to be chosen voluntarily by a significant number of women. This is another theory on why women held senior managerial position in an organisation. However, some experts challenge and argue Hakim’s view. Women’s choice, according to them is constrained by the lack of alternatives and weak bargaining position because they have to accommodate domestic responsibility (Ginn et al. 1996).

Hakim’s belief is considered as one of the main reasons on why few women are actively engaged in the higher stages of management. But the circumstances provided by the traditional roles of women that are preexisting in the society also support the extreme opposite side. In management, women are relatively better in terms of management regardless of the roles they play particularly in the personnel and employee relations.

Wanted: Woman Manager

In an article written in The Independent (2003) states that,

“Chief executives and business leaders have been urged to change their attitude to leadership after a study showed that women were more effective managers. Professor Beverley Alimo-Metcalfe, from the University of Leeds, said executives should "get real" after the study of 2,000 health service and local authority staff, presented to the British Psychological Society, showed women were better at inspiring their staff and creating a culture of development. Men hold nine out of 10 top business jobs.”

However, this claim is highly subjected to further debates and studies as to the reason that it is relative in nature of the opportunity. Management styles may be gendered. Rutherford's (2001) study of male and female managers in an airline confirms differences in their approach to management. The research found out that men tend to follow a more command and control style with a distancing of personal self, while women are more communicative and caring, with more emphasis on people skills such as listening rather than mere performance of the task. Women treated more leniently than men, raising the possibility of discrimination (Rollinson et al. 1996). Because of the traditional characteristics of woman, their attributes as leaders are softer than men. Increasing reliance on attitudinal characteristics intensify the problem of management because attitude, behaviour and personality tend to interact with gender and racial stereotypes and lead to discrimination in selection. Emotional labour is not gender neutral as work containing significant amounts is dominated by women (Taylor & Tyler 2000). For example, working as cabin crew is defined as women's work by employers, customers and employees.

Physically speaking, the extent of limitation of women in the workplace is manifested in their stress coping mechanisms. Workers can develop coping mechanisms where stress is within their personal capacity to manage. Otherwise prolonged job stress can lead to burn-out or breakdown, which is more likely to affect women than men (Buick & Thomas 2001). Again, with the biological foundation and nature of women, this limits their capacity to climb a higher position.

Regardless of any perspectives, women are certainly capable of leading and managing an organisation. However, there are unavoidable considerations to be taken at hand such as social, emotional, and physical factors.

Equal Opportunity Policies for Women: the function of HRM

Equal opportunities policies are voluntary, and depend on a business case argument rather than being based on a social case. Business arguments are conditional (Dickens 1994), resulting in selective and partial action in which employers prioritize gender over race. Putting equal opportunities policies into practice is impeded by men's resistance to sex equality (Wajcman 2000). There are circumstances when women can break through the 'glass ceiling' and achieve senior management positions (Maxwell 1997; Knutson & Schmidgall 1999). An organization-based approach is no use to women in highly feminized employment who remain stuck to a 'sticky floor' because it does not lead to “a transformation in access to power and the nature of it” (Dickens 1994, p.15). Hence the economic benefits of equal opportunities need to be articulated at a level beyond the organization, but may not produce desirable outcomes.

With such dilemma, the role of HRM emerges as the tool for the development of policies and practices that will not perpetuate rather challenge gender inequality into transformation. For instance, in terms of securing employee commitment, assumptions about women being less committed than men will affect the shape of the organisation, and determine which jobs are full-time or part-time. The role of HRM in the emergence of women managers is supported by important factors such as abilities, skills, and management functions present within a candidate for the position.

Considering the reasons on why few women occupy senior managerial positions, it is good to study the root of the matter. Delving into an array of researches conducted to investigate on this condition is a great help to identify such causes. All in all, the reason on why there are less numbers of women managers in the corporate world is because of some factors involve in the process of employee management. May it be on the aspect of traditional, historical, physical, emotional, and other elements involved in selection, the theoretical frameworks underlying the subject is dependent on the responsibility of every participant. The recognizable efforts of women employee to reach the position that they deserve must be acknowledge by employers. Meanwhile, the role of labour policies imposed by the government or entitled authorities is also considered to be factors to materialize the objective. Existing laws on the further promotion and acceptance of women in the corporate world should also be reinforced. Thus, the treatment on men workers will definitely be the same to the women.

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