Erik H. Erikson, an American psychoanalyst came up with his theory of psychosocial development as an expansion and adaptation of Sigmund Freud’s theory of development (psychosexual stages) (Erikson 1950; 1964; 1963; 1968). Frued’s key concepts on his theory, (i.e. the id, ego, and superego, and the infantile sexuality) was accepted by Erikson but the idea that personality is dependent on the basis of sexuality was rejected. Erikson also disapproved of Freud’s concept of originology that carries the idea that all mental illness is marked out by early experiences during childhood (Hoare 2005). For Erikson, childhood experience is essential but an individual also develops within a social context or within environmental considerations (Erikson 1980; 1982). The issue of childhood and its development centers to the main idea of the theory as Erikson believed that a human’s early days is a key aspect of personality development. In contrast to Frued’s ideas that personality develops beyond five years of age, Erikson’s views extends beyond the entire lifespan of an individual.
Generally, Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development provides description on eight (8) specific developmental stages namely infancy, early childhood, late childhood, school age, adolescence, young adulthood, adulthood, and maturity. These stages are said to be experienced from period of infancy to late adulthood and are encouraged to be completed successfully because if not, it will result to challenges that appear as problems in the future. Each phase of the theory has its developmental task that an individual is required to do and find balance between each task (e.g. trust versus mistrust, autonomy versus shame and doubt, etc). Erikson’s argument on development is that the entire lifespan of people continue to develop all throughout their lives. The formulation of these given “stages of man” is not based on experimental work but through experiential encounters in the field of psychotherapy involving children and adolescents from various social classes. Each psychosocial stage is characterized by Erikson as a "psychosocial crisis" or task, which arises and demands successful resolution before proceeding to the next stage and can be adequately negotiated. Although, the resolution of crisis or task is not always successful and complete as it could also be partial and unsuccessful or incomplete. Similarly, each psychosocial stage is related to previous stages. Erikson envisions life in a sequential level of achievement where the greater the task achievement, the healthier the personality of the person, and vice versa. The failure to achieve a task identified in a given stage affects the individual’s ability to achieve the next and other tasks present in other stages.
Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development reflect both advantageous and disadvantageous positions and aspects of given life’s periods. It is important to consider that the role of environment is highly influential. Furthermore, Erikson emphasizes that every individual is subject to changes and must adapt their behavior to maintain control over their lives. In his view, there is no stage in the development of personality that could be avoided. But on some case, people can possibly be fixated at one stage or regress to a previous stage as triggered by anxious or stressful conditions. All in all, Erikson’s psychosocial development theory supports the idea of continuous development among every individual regardless of identified interferences.
Relevance of Application in Today’s Perspective
The idea that a person develops all throughout the entire lifespan is supported by Erikson. With this fact, it could be clearly accepted that the theory is particularly acceptable as well as applicable in reference to the current times. The concepts of development are still used and revered as important factors in analyzing individual behaviors, motivation, course of action, and other human features. Because people need to develop and there is no way to avoid such, the principles of Erikson’s psychosocial development theory significantly underlines the development as synonymous to learning. In many ways, it provides practical applications and raise potentialities for therapists and their patients in addressing key issues and skills. The knowledge and understanding of this theory yields as a guide or measurement in the assessment of teaching and child care practices and the ability to nurture and facilitate healthy emotional and cognitive development and its processes involved.
In application, learning basic Trust versus Mistrust (Hope) is the first psychosocial stage that occurs in the period of infancy or through birth to 18 months of life. The child, on this case, is efficiently managed, nurtured, and loved, and results to the development of trust and security and basic optimism. When badly handled, the child becomes insecure and skeptical. The practical application of this stage is that it remains the foundational basis of personality development wherein the indicator of positive resolution is the learning of trust in contrary to the indicator of negative resolutions of mistrust, withdrawal, and estrangement. If the parents, for example, do not let their children to gain trust for them and for themselves in all the actions inherent to them, then the latter result will be the expected outcome.
Eventually, the task of Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt comes next during early childhood (18 months to 3 years) that result to positive – self-control without loss of self-esteem and ability to cooperate and to express oneself, and negative – willfulness and defiance as resolutions. The application of this stage is the fundamental explanation on the certain degree of assurance that is inherent to every individual in response to the challenges in the ever-changing world.
Furthermore, the next stage is late childhood (3 to 5 years) with Initiative versus Guilt as central task and results to positive – learning the degree to which assertive and purpose influence the environment and the beginning ability to evaluate one’s own behavior, and negative – lack of self-confidence, pessimism, fear of wrongdoing, overcontrol and overrestriction of own activity as resolutions. Looking on this stage, the explanation is evidently related to the formation of self-confidence among individuals. It is reflected in the theory’s whole idea that personal experiences are important in the development of personality and as adult.
At school age, this stage occur when an individual ages 6-12 years and illuminating on the central task of Industry versus Inferiority. The indicators of resolution of this stage are: positive – beginning to create, develop, and manipulate and the development of sense of competence and perseverance; and negative – loss of hope, sense of being mediocre, and withdrawal from school and peers. Erikson believes that during the fourth psychosocial crisis the child learns to master the more formal skills of life. School age is said to be the period in which an individual formalizes the views he/she acquired in the earlier stages. Again, it is noted that every stage is intertwined with the previous and the subsequent stages.
The fifth stage of psychosocial development is adolescence, which occur in the period of 12 to 20 years. This is supported by the central task of Identity versus Role confusion and resulted to resolutions, which are positive – coherent sense of self and plans to actualize one’s abilities and negative – feelings of confusion, indecisiveness, and possible incident of antisocial behavior. During this stage, sexual identity as being a man or woman is established. The concept of leadership (someone to inspire) progressively develops a set of ideals (socially congruent and desirable) in the case of the successful adolescent. Erikson believes that, in our culture, adolescence affords a "psychosocial moratorium", for example among middle- and upper-class American children. In this case, these children do not have to "play for keeps" but can try out on different roles, and thus hopefully find the one most fit for them. In application, the idea of this stage supports the progression of an individual to become a person he/she wishes to be, that is often called the sense of self (identity). On this stage, the study of Marcia (1966) regarded different forms of identity in adolescence that contributes to the self-concept and in due course makes intimate attachments in early adulthood. In her research, those individuals who resolved the crises of childhood are more likely to resolve the crises of adulthood.
Young adulthood (18 to 25 years) is the next stage that is characterized by the central task of Intimacy versus Isolation (Love). The indicators of resolutions are: positive – intimate relationship with another person, commitment to work and relationships; and negative – impersonal relationships, avoidance of relationship, career, or lifestyle commitments. As a successful young adult, for the first time, a person must experience true intimacy that may result to possible good marriage or a genuine and enduring friendship. This stage is inherent on the explanation of how people relate with others and formation of human relationships given that he/she already acquired the necessary skills as prerequisites in the former stages.
On the stage of adulthood (25 to 65 years), the central task of Generativity versus Stagnation result to either positive – creativity, productivity, and concern for other or negative – self-indulgence, self-concern, lack of interests and commitments as resolutions. On this stage, it reflects on the role of adults in guiding and teaching acceptable (or undesirable) modes and conducts of the emerging generation. The social participation through valued works, for example, is an expression of generativity. It facilitates the challenge of what an individual will usefully accomplish. According to Nordholm (1996), early in adulthood the person decides on a career to pursue which will bring fulfillment of his/her goals in life.
And lastly, the stage of maturity (65 year to death) centers in the task of Integrity versus Despair (Wisdom) involving positive – acceptance of worth and uniqueness of one’s own life and acceptance of death; and negative – sense of loss, and contempt for others as resolutions. If the other seven psychosocial crises have been successfully resolved, the mature adult develops the peak of adjustment, that is, integrity. This is evident when he/she trusts others, independent in disposition, works hard, has found distinct role in life, and has developed a self-concept that he/she prefers. Also, an individual can be intimate without negative qualities such as strain, guilt, regret, or lack of realism. He/She is proud of what turns out in life – family and children, work, hobbies, etc. In contrast, if one or more of the earlier psychosocial crises have not been resolved, the risk on viewing life with disgust and despair is high. Through this stage, an individual can assess what kind of life he/she had live.
Erikson’s theory is indeed useful up to this moment. It serves as a universal and timeless guide on the development of every person and source of underlying explanations on whats, hows, whys, etc. of his/her life. These particularly described stages of man and development, or the psychosocial crises, are reasonable and provides insightful descriptions that support the explanation of how the human personality actually develops. It simply refers to the understanding of the ways (stages, tasks, and resolutions) on how we mature into adults. There are many research studies that deal with the application of the theory (e.g. Jenkins et al 2005; Crawford et al 2004; Markstrom 1999; Zauszniewski & Martin 1999; Johnson 1993; Salamon 1993; Ginsburg 1992). Earlier studies recognize the imperative role of the theory in providing understanding on issues and stages, for example, Johnson (1993) identifies the relationship between psychosocial development and personality disorder symptomalogy in late adolescents as also similar to Crawford and colleagues (2004) that is a reassessment of the theory in reference to the symptoms, and Ginsburg (1992) focuses on childhood injuries and the stages present in the theory. Further, Jenkins and group (2005) looked on differentiation of self and psychosocial development in terms of therapy. Salamon (1993) is more on exploring the universality of the theory by using Nigeria as the case. Markstrom (1999) explicates on religious involvement and adolescent psychosocial development while Zauszniewski and Martin (1999) focus on the developmental task achievement in healthy older adults. For example, Christiansen and Palkovitz (1998, p. 133) states that adolescence and early adulthood seem to be important times for individuals to build the foundations of identity and intimacy that will help them prepare for future healthy adult development. All of these studies had proven the unchanging application of the theory as basis in analyzing human behavior across the span of life.
Conclusion
According to Ramsden (1999), the existing body of psychosocial theory, in particular Erikson’s, tries to elucidate on the concept of human development in terms of an interaction among the needs and abilities of the person, situated within a societal context that has expectations and rules. It looks at human behavior across the span of life, recognize the key components and describe it in terms of stages in the growth from infancy through old age. Erikson’s theory is not only bounded on the premise of biological heritage but also on the influences of the environment. The theory suggests that at every given stage in individual’s life, a probability exists to manage and incorporate human experiences that contribute to individual psychological development. In the theory, the role of societal context is materialized through culture as an important role in individual’s personal and even holistic growth and development as it sets the rules that guide us, the expectations for behavior, and provides opportunities for expression of individuality within the community.
The principles embodied in Erikson’s psychosocial theory are applicable on the present times by serving as ultimate guide or yardstick and foundation of human personality development. It provides basic information that explains simple to complex processes inherent in every stages of life. From early childhood to adulthood and old age, the theory proves that individuals are capable and unavoidable participants of learning in order to become a better person or at least the person they wanted to be. The theory also explains the nature of a person given the exact psychological methodologies involved but similarly uses the principal ideas of the theory. All in all, the discussion provided in this report serves as the supporting basis on recommending the use of Erikson’s psychosocial theory in professional practice as it greatly provides relevant questions on the human’s quest of sense of identity and importance as well as answer to the ultimate question of purpose of existence.
References
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