Being a male or a female is not purely characterized by the biological composition of individuals. Sexuality or gender is defined in many aspects that it extends beyond sociological, cultural, economical, political, and other dimensions of human life. The traditional assumption is that sex is naturally given while gender is the cultural definition built upon that identified nature of sex (Delaney 2007, p. 37). Research studies on the different branches of the social sciences particularly psychology, sociology and anthropology have raised intriguing questions about the relationship between sex and sexual orientation. Are ideas of a person in relation to sexuality or gender socially constructed or inherent and essential parts of individual’s character? Looking on the various sources provided on the succeeding discussions, the main thesis of this report states that sexuality or gender is socially constructed as related to various factors (e.g. culture and media) that effect its definition yet the nature of sexuality or gender – being a male or a female is a prime consideration of such social construction. It is also significantly emphasized that the word socially indicated in the phrases qualifies the main argument as the word synonymously understood as within society or in a social extent.
Social Construction of Sexuality or Gender: a Cultural Perspective
Culture by definition is similar to culture itself. It does not have established definition; however, there are common denominators or concepts that connect various definitions from each other. The basic definition of culture includes anything about human knowledge, belief, and behaviour with shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices of people in particular place and time that transcend beyond generations. According to Handwerker (2002, p. 107), “culture mainly consists of the knowledge on what or how people use to live their lives and the way in which they do so”. Culture consists of both explicit and implicit rules through which experience is interpreted.
Culture in relation to sexuality or gender is evidently pervasive in control. Most anthropological studies involving demographic criteria like age, race, ethnicity, social class, language, etc. do not undermine the important role of culture. For example, the ethnographic/sociolinguistic work of Eckert (1989, 1999) involving preadolescent and adolescent communities of practice shows varied ways in which gender and other aspects of identity are co-constructed. The cultural practices of people in specific culture define their identity. This simple analogy is applicable on the social construction of sexuality or gender. Historically, men are the ones who work in order for a family to sustain the basic needs to live while women are responsible for child-rearing and household management. The pre-historic narrations signify that men are the hunters as women are the gatherers. In reflection to culture, men and women have their specific roles designed exclusively for their individual capabilities. The biological composition of sexes are defined and constantly redefined, presented and further represented, valued, and communicated or passes through different roles that are derived in various culturally dependent ways.
During childhood, a child is exposed to other people, things, circumstances and other factors that might influence his/her growth. Researches are conducted regarding the ways children acquire culturally-related gender behaviors. In simple terms, male children normally plays in large group that are have given hierarchy, where they play games and winners and losers emerge. Female children are more comfortable in playing with small group where they can refer other playmates as best friend. Early childhood practices are already defined by practices and traditions on the environment where the child is living. The adults, what they say or do, how they act and relate to other for example, are adopted by children. Bandura’s (1969) social learning theory specifies children learn their appropriate sex-roles through observing the actions of others, as well as being either rewarded or punished for acting appropriately or inappropriately. Children gain knowledge of their personality and behavior patterns by imitation of their own parents' attitudes and behaviors. The practices as part of culture dictates how a male or a female child should act, thus creating the definition of his/her sexuality or gender bounded in the cultural practices in the environment he/she belongs. Bandura also observed that children acquire the patterns of behavior more rapidly if there is an attractive model whose behavior is rewarded (Smith 1994, p. 324).
On the social construction of ideas of sexuality or gender, culture indicates the male and female roles. This indication on how to be a man or a woman or what constitute a male or a female is culturally accepted. Because if a person acts against the given cultural practices and traditions of the society he/she belongs, he/she is considered outcast or cultural delinquent. As Cockburn (1991, p. 2) argued, “men and women are the same and different”. By exploring their potentialities as well as their limits, one is able to understand what is appropriate and what is not. In shaping societal norms, for instance, gender identify the different set of standards that are singularly intended for each sex and are useful in creating materials apposite to the practices and traditions of the existing culture. Anything that is in divergence to the host culture is considered taboo or unacceptable.
What the culture dictates to a certain individual makes up his/her her identity. According to Eckert and McConnell-Ginet (1999, p. 190-91), “the social practices that construct sexuality or gender are also simultaneously constructing other aspects of identity – such as life stage, heterosexuality, ethnicity, or social class”. The social construction of sexuality or gender in relation to culture is associated on the views of other aspects of human life. The reason of these two authors is bounded on the fact that generalizations involving gender are presumably to appear when gender is not singularly examined, but in interaction with other relevant social variables. As long as an identified feature of culture is defined to be masculine or feminine, it will serve the benefits of the person. Thus, culture gradually and continually evolves to meet the needs of society.
To strengthen the claim that the idea of sexuality or gender is socially constructed, “Foucault has shown that categories of sexuality in The History of Sexuality (1980) where he took issue with the conception of sexuality as a singular and all-important human attribute, involving members of one sex being oriented towards members of the opposite sex as their object” (Tseëlon 2001, p. 6). The amalgamation of cultural practices and traditions constitute sexuality or gender as reflected to gender roles. Such roles are regulated by gender relations that regulate the interaction between male and female.
Social Construction of Sexuality or Gender: a Media and Communications Perspective
The role of media as a catalyst of change goes beyond the development of values, practices, thoughts, and other attributes that characterize a man or a woman. What the media shows, writes, or tells affect the definition of sexuality or gender. The case of advertising and portrayal of men and women can be a relevant example. Also, the transformation of the traditional definition of sexuality or gender on both male and female sexes is influenced by media. According to Gauntlett (2001, p. 1), today’s media and all forms of communications are fundamental elements that have an effect on the people’s ways of life particularly in relation to gender and sexuality. They certainly are among the most influential source of developing people’s identities in various aspects like sexual, cultural, and others. The representations of man and woman in media serve as reference in existing development of the idea of sexuality or gender. This active, creative process through which images signify different meanings rather than merely presenting themselves as objective reflections of reality is called media representation (Rotstein & Henkel 1999, p.100). Media representation significantly contributes to the ideas of sexuality or gender. By providing specific cases like advertising in televisions and portrayal in films, it is reflected on the issue of gender relations and other issues particularly on the social construction of the idea of sexuality or gender.
In an effort to fully describe the influence of mass media to teenagers, Bordo (cited in Blumenstein, 1994), observes that, while parents and teachers taught kids of earlier generations on how to become well-bred men and women, young people nowadays learn same lessons through “emotionally compelling” and “utterly fabricated” images present in billboards, magazines, music videos, and in the movies. Bordo (cited in Blumenstein, 1994) became very alarmed by the pervasiveness and power of such images in modern popular culture. Advertising and media are vastly influential and attractive and creates a room for human beings to live their lives in a state of commerciality (Nome 2006). Sender (1999, p. 172) referred “advertisements to constitute a system of cultural production offering meaning to a consumer society which is otherwise symbolically, mythically, or spiritually, impoverished”. Advertisements serve dual functions, as according to her, to provide role models for people to identify with and through whom they make constructions and images of themselves as social beings and to guide consumers towards trends and development in the marketplace and quantities of purchasing in an increasingly commodified social environment (Sender 1999, p. 172). In application, the advertised articles of trade that identify what are exclusive to man or woman builds up their individual sexual identity. For instance, the perfumes that were used by either man or woman are labeled as For Him or For Her. The clothes are also manifestation of masculine and feminine identity. Advertising in media socially construct the idea of sexuality or gender in terms of what a male or a female should use or consume. Recent developments in advertising imagery often involve the use of explicit sexuality and have consistently reflected prevailing views of appropriate gender relations and heterosexual norms, both endorsing proper femininity and masculinity (Eliot et al 2006; Sender 1999, p. 172). Advertising traditions as part of a given culture direct the social construction of sexuality and gender on the part of a man or a woman.
The identity of male and female on media representation on film portrayal signifies gender segregation. Media standards in connection to segregation of sexes are based on the role a character play. For instance, domestic or romantic dramas in film or television and even theater (including soap operas) show us how males and females interact on given instances. Media standards and conventions in the segregation of sexes define the extent of the role of man and woman. There are media portrayals and representations that are in disparity with the previously existing cultural beliefs (Crompton 1999, p. 8). With the given function of media as catalyst of change, the ideas of sexuality or gender in terms of social construction depict personalities that challenge the possibilities of reversing or bridging the gap of sexual or gender identity or even segregation. As Ortner and Whitehead (1981, p. 2) have argued, “gender itself is a system of prestige or social ranking (maleness is more highly valued than femaleness), and it is always crucially linked to other prestige systems”.
Today’s media tries to equate the role of men and women in society. Even if the movement for gender equality gradually evolved in the late 19th century and was fuelled by women movements in the 20th century, the mild, moderate and radical feminist groups mustered their organizing influence to slowly inflict change in the society (Kimmel 2000, p. 324). The changes in the definition of male and female in films and other areas of life such as employment, politics, etc. are evolutionary and similarly revolutionary. The traditional societal definition of men and women is already altered by media representations seen evidently on films and other visual communication mediums. Overall, media and its vehicles socially construct the idea of masculinity or femininity as shown on advertising culture and the filmic portrayals and representations.
In conclusion, the social factors that affect the idea of sexuality or gender are dynamic. The unending debate on the overall construction of the idea of sexuality or gender is nowhere to go. This is because various occurrences that appear in the process of justifying findings affect or totally alter such given findings. Like culture itself, the definition of sexuality or gender is standardized and bounded. Sexuality or gender is socially constructed as related to various factors (e.g. culture and media) that affect its definition yet the nature of sexuality or gender is socially dependent and ordered.
References
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